The War to End War

 

I.                    War By Germany’s Actions

a.       Unrestricted Submarine Warfare

                                                               i.      January 1917 – Failed crops, as well as a British naval blockade, caused severe food shortages in Germany

                                                             ii.      Desperate to strike back, Germany decided to establish its own naval blockade around Britain.  They decided to sink any ship in the waters around Britain without warning, called unrestricted submarine warfare

                                                            iii.      Germany hoped to defeat Britain before America could mobilize their army

b.      Zimmerman Note

                                                               i.      February 1917 – The British intercepted a telegram (Zimmerman note) from Germany’s foreign secretary, Arthur Zimmerman, to the German ambassador in Mexico.  The message said that Germany would help Mexico “reconquer” the land it had lost to the United States if Mexico would ally itself with Germany (Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona)

                                                             ii.      The British decoded the message and gave it to the U.S. government.  The American public called for war

c.       Sinking of More American Vessels

                                                               i.      Four unarmed American merchant vessels were sunk in the first two weeks of March

                                                             ii.      At this time, Russia had to deal with a revolution and backed out of the war.  If America entered the war now, they wouldn’t have to be on the side of the Russians

d.      Declaration of War

                                                               i.      April 1917 – The U.S. entered the war on the side of the Allies

                                                             ii.      British harassment of American ships was endurable; Germans sunk and killed many American ships with innocent civilians on them

II.                 Wilsonian Idealism Enthroned

a.       Isolationists

                                                               i.      America had a tradition of being isolationist

                                                             ii.      60 Senators and 50 representatives voted against the war resolution

                                                            iii.      The Midwest was unconcerned about the war because they didn’t care about submarine warfare

b.      Glorifying the U.S.’s War Aims

                                                               i.      To unify the country, Wilson declared that the war was being fought “to make the world safe for democracy” – without the fear of autocrats or militants

                                                             ii.      He contrasted the selfish war aims of the other belligerents with America’s goals and ideals.  America didn’t fight for money or territory

c.       Wilson’s Beliefs

                                                               i.      He truly believed in the principles mentioned above and his appeal worked

                                                             ii.      He also thought that the modern world could not afford to have a huge destructive war that advanced industrial States were not capable of waging

                                                            iii.      Americans, it seemed, could be either isolationists or crusaders, but nothing in between

III.               Wilson’s 14 Points

a.       The First 5 Points

                                                               i.      A proposal to abolish secret treaties (wanted open peace treaties)

                                                             ii.      Freedom of the seas (appealed to the Germans, as well as to Americans who distrusted British sea power)

                                                            iii.      A removal of economic barriers

                                                           iv.      Reduction of arms (burden to taxpayers in all countries)

                                                             v.      An adjustment of colonial claims (in the interests of both native people and the colonizers)

b.      Other Points

                                                               i.      Held out the hope of independence (“self-determination”) to oppressed minority groups, such as the Poles (many of whom were under the control of Germany and Austria-Hungary)

c.       14th Point

                                                               i.      Foreshadowed the League of Nations

                                                             ii.      Called for an international organization that would provide a system of collective security

d.      Reaction to 14 Points

                                                               i.      Wilson was seen as the moral leader of the Allied cause

                                                             ii.      It inspired the Allies to make better efforts and demoralized the enemy because of alluring promises to dissatisfied minorities

                                                            iii.      The 5th point helped open the road for eventual national independence for millions of colonial areas

                                                           iv.      Some Allied nations had notions of territorial gains after the war, so they didn’t like the 14 Points

IV.              Creel Manipulates Minds

a.       Committee On Public Information

                                                               i.      Headed by journalist George Creel

                                                             ii.      His job was to sell America on the war and sell the world on Wilson’s war aims (was jingoistic – advocating an aggressive, nationalistic foreign policy)

                                                            iii.      The organization employed 150,000 workers at home and overseas.  They:

1.      Sent out thousands of people to make short speeches containing patriotic talk

2.      Created many propaganda posters

3.      Printed many pamphlets

4.      Filmed several movies, such as The Beast of Berlin and To Hell With the Kaiser

5.      Composed patriotic songs

a.       Over There

6.      Urged all citizens to spy on neighbors with foreign names

                                                           iv.      He oversold Wilson. He led the world to expect too much from him, which resulted in disillusionment both at home and abroad

V.                 Enforcing Loyalty and Stifling Dissent

a.       German Americans

                                                               i.      Numbered 8 million (including those with one parent who was born in that country) out of a population of 100 million

                                                             ii.      They were loyal to the U.S.

                                                            iii.      Rumors persisted of German spies, so some German Americans were beaten and tarred/feathered

b.      American Protective League

                                                               i.      Volunteer organization that claimed approval of the Justice Department for pressuring support of war

                                                             ii.      Humiliated those accused of not buying war bonds

                                                            iii.      Persecuted those of German descent

                                                           iv.      Encouraged the banning of German culture in everything from product names to consumption, including “pretzels” and “German Measles”

c.       Result of German Hysteria

                                                               i.      Orchestras found it unsafe to play German-composed music (like Beethoven)

                                                             ii.      German books were removed from libraries

                                                            iii.      German classes were cancelled

                                                           iv.      Sauerkraut became “liberty cabbage”

                                                             v.      Hamburgers became “liberty steak”

                                                           vi.      Beer became suspect

d.      Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918

                                                               i.      Reflected current fears about Germans and antiwar Americans

                                                             ii.      The acts would:

1.      Impose fines and imprisonment for persons who made false statements which aided the enemy, hindered the draft, or incited military rebellion

2.      Forbade criticism of the government, flag, or uniform

e.       Results of the Acts

                                                               i.      Antiwar Socialists and Workers of the World (IWW) members were arrested, including Socialist Party leader Eugene V. Debs and IWW leader William Haywood

                                                             ii.      1,900 people were prosecuted.  Most were pardoned after the war, but a few weren’t released until the 1930s

f.        Schenck v. U.S. (1919)

                                                               i.      Schenck was a member of the (U.S.) Socialist Party.  He sent out pamphlets to men who had been drafted, urging them to resist during WWI

                                                             ii.      The Espionage Act was upheld in the Supreme Court.  The court ruled against Schenck because his words established a “clear and present danger” to the U.S. (one cannot yell “fire” in a crowded theater)

VI.              The Nation’s Factories Go To War

a.       Preparation For War Prior To 1917

                                                               i.      Wilson had only backed some mild preparedness measures beginning in 1915:

1.      Council of National Defense to study problems of economic mobilization

2.      Launched a shipbuilding program

3.      Increased the army to 100,000 (15th in the world)

b.      Problems With Mobilization

                                                               i.      No one knew how much steel, gun powder, or other supplies the nation could truly produce

                                                             ii.      Traditional fears of big government stopped efforts to mobilize the economy by the national government.  States’ rights Democrats and businesspeople didn’t like federal economic controls

                                                            iii.      War Industries Board – It wasn’t until March 1918 that Wilson tried to stop the economic confusion by appointing Bernard Baruch to head this Board.  However, even this board was disbanded days after the armistice

                                                           iv.      Wilson ended up controlling (to ensure supplies for the war):

1.      Raw materials

2.      Production

3.      Prices

4.      Labor relations

5.      Fuel

6.      Railroads

7.      Maritime shipping

VII.            Workers In Wartime

a.       Government Treatment of Labor

                                                               i.      Threatened any unemployed male with being immediately drafted – a powerful discouragement to go on strike

                                                             ii.      Resolved some labor disputes through offers of employee benefits

                                                            iii.      National War Labor Board –

1.      Chaired by Taft

2.      Purpose was to stop labor disputes that might hamper the war effort

3.      They demanded high wages and the 8-hour work day

                                                           iv.      Overall, the government treated labor fairly

b.      American Federation of Labor

                                                               i.      Led by Samuel Gompers

                                                             ii.      Supported the war

                                                            iii.      More than doubled its membership to 3 million by the end of the war

                                                           iv.      In the most heavily unionized sectors – coal mining, manufacturing, and transportation, wages had risen 20%

c.       Industrial Workers of the World (IWW)

                                                               i.      Also known as the “Wobblies” or “I Won’t Works” because they didn’t support the war

                                                             ii.      Fruit and lumber workers led strikes because they were transient people and because of it, their working conditions were the poorest

                                                            iii.      When they protested, many were beaten, arrested, or run out of town

d.      Labor During the War

                                                               i.      Still didn’t have the right to organize

                                                             ii.      6,000 strikes occurred during the war

e.       Steel Strikes

                                                               i.      In 1919, ¼ of a million steelworkers walked off their jobs in order to force their employers to recognize their right to organize and bargain collectively

                                                             ii.      The steel companies refused to negotiate with union representatives and brought in 30,000 African American workers to keep the mills running

                                                            iii.      After confrontations that left more than a dozen workers dead, the steel strike collapsed

f.        African American Migration

                                                               i.      Tens of thousands of southern blacks were drawn to the North in wartime by war-industry employment.  This began the migration of African Americans moving northward

                                                             ii.      Their sudden appearance in previously all-white areas sometimes sparked race riots

1.      St. Louis, Missouri (July 1917) – left 9 whites and at least 40 blacks dead

2.      Chicago, Illinois (July 1919) – black and white gangs roamed the streets and left 15 whites and 23 blacks dead

VIII.         Suffering Until Suffrage

a.       National American Woman Suffrage Association

                                                               i.      Supported Wilson’s war

                                                             ii.      Urged women to participate in the war effort (served as clerks or in medical units)

                                                            iii.      Took men’s jobs in the factories

b.      National Woman’s Party

                                                               i.      Some progressive feminists protested the war and women’s involvement in it

                                                             ii.      This group was led by Alice Paul and demonstrated with marches and hunger strikes

c.       New Momentum For Suffrage

                                                               i.      The war effort gave new momentum for the suffrage movement

                                                             ii.      Wilson endorsed women’s suffrage

                                                            iii.      State legislatures began allowing women to vote

                                                           iv.      1920 – the 19th Amendment was ratified, giving all American women the right to vote

d.      Women’s Rights In the Workplace

                                                               i.      Women’s Bureau in the Department of Labor was created to protect women in the workplace

                                                             ii.      However, most women gave up their jobs after the war

                                                            iii.      Sheppard-Towner Maternity Act of 1921

1.      Provided federally financed instruction in maternal and infant health care

2.      With the passage of this act, Congress reaffirmed their belief that the woman’s place was in the home

IX.              Forging A War Economy

a.       Food Administration

                                                               i.      Herbert Hoover, a Quaker-humanitarian was chosen to lead this organization

                                                             ii.      He was already considered a hero because he had successfully led a massive charitable drive to feed the starving people of war-racked Belgium

                                                            iii.      He preferred voluntary compliance rather than compulsory demands

1.      Refused to issue ration cards, but instead used propaganda posters, newspapers, and movies

2.      People were urged to be patriotic – Victory Gardens

                                                           iv.      Worked because of the patriotic wartime spirit

                                                             v.      Farm production increased by ¼ and food exports to the Allies tripled

b.      Fuel Administration

                                                               i.      Saved fuel with:

1.      Heatless Mondays

2.      Lightless nights

3.      Gasless Sundays

c.       Treasury Department

                                                               i.      Sponsored huge parades and invoked slogans like “Halt the Hun” to promote four Liberty Loan drives, followed by a Victory Loan campaign in 1919

                                                             ii.      Together, these efforts netted $21 billion, or 2/3 the cost of the war at that point (the total cost, including interest and veterans’ benefits was $112 billion).  The remainder was raised by increased taxes

                                                            iii.      Some people were actually threatened or their houses were vandalized

d.      Non-voluntary Compliance

                                                               i.      Took over the nation’s railroads following bad traffic problems

                                                             ii.      Seized enemy merchant vessels trapped in America’s harbors

e.       Prohibition

                                                               i.      Congress restricted the use of foodstuffs for alcoholic drinks

                                                             ii.      This helped speed up a wave of prohibition that was sweeping the country

                                                            iii.      Many leading brewers were German-descended, and this taint made the drive against alcohol all the more popular

                                                           iv.      This all resulted in the passage of the 18th Amendment, prohibiting all alcoholic drinks

X.                 Making Plowboys Into Doughboys

a.       Need For American Troops

                                                               i.      America planned on:

1.      Using its navy to fight in the seas

2.      Ship war materials to the Allies and give them loans (they loaned the Allies $10 billion)

                                                             ii.      However, the Allies made the Americans aware that they were running out of money and manpower.  America would have to send troops to the war, or else the western front would collapse

b.      The Conscription Law

                                                               i.      Wilson disliked the draft, but believed it to be necessary

                                                             ii.      The bill in Congress met much opposition.  Some believed that the people would rebel

                                                            iii.      The draft act was passed 6 weeks after war was declared.  It required:

1.      The registration of all males between the ages of 18-45

2.      No one could purchase an exemption (as in the Civil War)

3.      The war excluded men working in key industries, such as shipbuilding

c.       Results of Conscription

                                                               i.      Worked well.  Registration day was patriotic

                                                             ii.      337,000 evaded the draft; 4,000 conscientious objectors were excused

                                                            iii.      Army grew to over 4 million

                                                           iv.      Women were admitted to the armed forces (11,000 to the navy and 269 to the marines)

                                                             v.      African Americans served the armed forces, but in segregated units usually led by white officers.  Reflecting discrimination, many worked on construction and unloading ships.  400,000 black men were drafted or enlisted

                                                           vi.      Recruits were supposed to receive 8 months of training, but most received much less because they were needed in battle

XI.              Fighting In France

a.       Results of Russia’s Collapse

                                                               i.      Meant that thousands of German soldiers could now concentrate on the western front

                                                             ii.      This gave the Germans a superiority in manpower

b.      Slow American Mobilization

                                                               i.      The Germans hoped that they could defeat Britain in 6 months – before the Americans could mobilize

                                                             ii.      No effective American fighting force reached France until about a year after Congress declared war

                                                            iii.      Shipping shortages stalled troops from coming over to Europe, which Germany had also counted on

c.       First American Deployments

                                                               i.      First American deployments were used to replace the Allied armies

                                                             ii.      Small amounts of troops were also deployed in Belgium, Italy, and Russia

                                                            iii.      America sent thousands of troops to Archangel and Siberia in Russia to prevent that country from falling into the hands of Germany when the Bolshevik Russians ended their fighting.  The Bolsheviks long resented the American interventions, which they regarded as efforts to stop their infant communist revolution before it grew any larger

XII.            America Helps the Defeat Germany

a.       Spring 1918

                                                               i.      Germany was moving forward with ½ million troops

                                                             ii.      French marshal Foch became the Allied supreme commander, unifying the troops.  Up until then, the Allies had been fighting imperfectly coordinated actions

b.      May 1918

                                                               i.      The Germans came to within 40 miles of Paris

                                                             ii.      30,000 American troops fought in the Battle of Chateau-Thierry/Belleau Woods.  This was the first significant engagement of American troops in the war

c.       July 1918

                                                               i.      The German drive was over

                                                             ii.      The Allies began the Second Battle of the Marne, which marked the beginning of the German withdrawal that never reversed

d.      September 1918

                                                               i.      243,000 American troops (9 divisions) joined 4 French divisions in driving the Germans back at the Battle of St. Mihiel

e.       September-November 1918

                                                               i.      John J. (“Black Jack”) Pershing was assigned a front of 85 miles (because the Americans were clamoring for a separate army)

                                                             ii.      He launched the Meuse-Argonne offensive, which was to cut the German railroad lines feeding the western front

                                                            iii.      The battle was the biggest the U.S. had ever fought up until that point.  It was 47 days long and engaged 1.2 million American troops

                                                           iv.      The Americans had 120,000 killed or wounded, most resulting from being inadequately trained

                                                             v.      Alvin C. York, a member of an antiwar religious sect, became a hero when he single-handedly killed 20 Germans and captured 132 more

f.        Victory In Sight

                                                               i.      American armies were using their supplies so quickly that they were in danger of running short

                                                             ii.      However, the:

1.      Central Powers were deserting the Germans

2.      British blockade was causing food shortages

3.      The Allies were killing many German soldiers

4.      Propaganda leaflets dropped at the German front lines were seducing German soldiers into giving up

XIII.         Germany Surrenders

a.       Peace Begins

                                                               i.      October 1914 – Wilson makes it clear that the Kaiser must be thrown out before an armistice could be made

                                                             ii.      The German military generals took his advice and forced Wilhelm to flee to Holland, where he lived out the rest of his life

b.      November 11, 1918

                                                               i.      The Germans surrendered

                                                             ii.      There was around the clock parties, and the streets were jammed with celebrations, laughing, and dancing

c.       U.S.’s Main Contributions

                                                               i.      Foodstuffs, munitions, money, oil, and manpower

                                                             ii.      They fought only two major battles, at St. Mihiel and the Meuse-Argonne, both in the last two months of the 4-year war

                                                            iii.      It was the prospect of endless U.S. troops reserves, rather than America’s actual military performance, that eventually demoralized the Germans

                                                           iv.      The U.S.’s European army depended on the allies for:

1.      Supplies

a.       Only 500 artillery pieces were of American manufacture

b.      Nearly all aircraft was provided by the British and French

2.      Britain and France transported most American troops

                                                             v.      The Americans wouldn’t become a huge military force until the next world war

XIV.         Wilson Steps Down From On High

a.       Wilson’s Popularity

                                                               i.      Popularity of the president was at a high around the world.  Expectations of how well he’d perform at the peace negotiations were high

                                                             ii.      At home, the political parties worked together during the war crisis.  Wilson hoped to strengthen himself at the peace talks if his party was a majority in Congress after the November 1918 elections.  However, after the elections, the Republicans held a narrow majority.  Wilson didn’t have a legislative majority unlike the rest of the leaders at the peace table, so his prestige was diminished

b.      Wilson and Problems With the Republicans

                                                               i.      Wilson’s decision to go in person to Paris to help make the peace infuriated Republicans.  No president had traveled to Europe, and Wilson’s journey looked to his critics like flamboyant grandstanding

                                                             ii.      Wilson further ruffled Republican leaders when he refused to allow a single member from that party in his peace delegation.  Republicans wanted the chairman of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations, Henry Cabot Lodge (MA) to go (he had a PhD).  However, both men hated each other

XV.           An Idealist Battles the Imperialists In Paris

a.       Paris Conference

                                                               i.      Many nations were there, but the Big Four made the important decisions:

1.      Wilson – United States (was popular with the European masses and had the most bargaining power at the peace conference)

2.      Vittorio Orlando – Italy

3.      David Lloyd George – Britain

4.      Georges Clemenceau – France

                                                             ii.      Russia, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman Empire were not invited

b.      Imperialism

                                                               i.      Wilson’s ultimate goal was a world parliament to be known as the League of Nations, but he first wanted to stop any vengeful parceling out of the former colonies of the Central Powers

                                                             ii.      The victors would not take possession of the conquered territory outright, but would receive it as trustees of the League of Nations.  However, it was basically the same prewar colonialism

1.      Syria was awarded to France

2.      Iraq was given to Britain

c.       League of Nations

                                                               i.      Wilson envisioned an assembly with seats for all nations and a council to be controlled by the great powers

                                                             ii.      In February 1919, they agreed to make the League of Nations

XVI.         Hammering Out the Treaty

a.       Criticism of the League of Nations

                                                               i.      Lodge and others didn’t like the League because:

1.      It was useless

2.      It was an overpowerful “super-state”

                                                             ii.      About a dozen hard-core isolationists were known as “irreconcilables” or “the Battalion of Death”

                                                            iii.      Enough Republican senators to defeat the treaty demanded that it be redrawn

b.      Results of the Senate Refusing To Approve the League of Nations

                                                               i.      Other countries had a stronger bargaining position.  Wilson would have to make concessions if he were to get a modified plan for the League of Nations.  He was sort of blackmailed into giving other countries spoils:

1.      France –

a.       Rhineland:

                                                                                                                                       i.      Had a lot of natural resources

                                                                                                                                     ii.      Much industry

                                                                                                                                    iii.      It could serve as a buffer between France and Germany to prevent future invasions

b.      Settlement:

                                                                                                                                       i.      The Saar Valley (Rhineland) would be under the control of the League of Nations for 15 years, then the people living there could vote on their fate (they chose to be reunited with Germany)

                                                                                                                                     ii.      In exchange for dropping its demands for the Rhineland, France negotiated Security Treaty, in which both Britain and America pledged to come to its aid in the in the event of another German invasion

2.      Italy –

a.       Fiume:

                                                                                                                                       i.      Was a valuable seaport inhabited by both Italians and Yugoslavs

                                                                                                                                     ii.      Wilson wanted the seaport to go to Yugoslavia and appealed over the heads of Italy’s leaders to the country’s masses.  This infuriated the masses against Wilson

3.      Japan –

a.       Shandong Peninsula and German Islands in the Pacific:

                                                                                                                                       i.      Japanese were given the islands (which they illegally fortified and used against the U.S. as bases in WWII)

                                                                                                                                     ii.      Wilson wanted self-determination, but Japan threatened to walk out of the meeting.  Japan kept Germany’s economic holdings in Shandong and pledged to return the peninsula to China at a later date.  The Chinese were outraged (30 million of their resident lived there)

XVII.      The Peace Treaty That Bred A New War

a.       Treaty of Versailles

                                                               i.      Germans were forced to sign in June 1919

                                                             ii.      Only 4 of the original 23 Wilsonian points were included.  He was forced to compromise some of the points to save the League of Nations.  He hoped that the League would make up for some of the inequities in the treaty

                                                            iii.      Vengeance, not reconciliation, was the treaty’s dominant tone.  The Allies hated Germany because:

1.      Money spent on war

2.      Starting war

3.      Deaths (65 million mobilized - 17.5 million allied casualties; 11.5 million central powers)(9 million deaths, 20 million wounded or MIA, 7 million permanently disabled)

b.      What Did the Treaty Do?

                                                               i.      Article 231 – “War Guilt Clause” – Germany had to accept everything as their fault.  Germany thought unfair, but had to sign

                                                             ii.      Reparations – Payments for the cost and damage caused by the war.  Germany had to pay $33 billion dollars, $500 million per year until 1988.  War cost the U.S. $224 million per day in 1918.  It cost $337 billion total for the U.S.  The U.S. loaned and was owed $11.5 billion in war debts - $2 trillion today

                                                            iii.      Reduced army and made them be defensive only

                                                           iv.      Limited navy

                                                             v.      No reserves

                                                           vi.      No tanks

                                                          vii.      No subs

                                                        viii.      No long-range artillery

                                                           ix.      No conscription

                                                             x.      Can’t train soldiers to be general staff officers

                                                           xi.      Rhineland to be occupied for 15 years

c.       Immediate Results of the Treaty

                                                               i.      Wilson, who was worshipped in Europe, was now a fallen idol

                                                             ii.      It liberated millions of minority people, including:

1.      Finland

2.      Latvia

3.      Lithuania

4.      Listonia

5.      Poland

6.      Czechoslovakia

7.      Yugoslavia

                                                            iii.      However, all of these countries:

1.      Harbor ill feelings toward each other

2.      Not democratic

3.      Ultra-nationalistic

4.      Little good leadership

d.      Separate Treaty With Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire

                                                               i.      Treaty of St. Germaine – signed September 1919

1.      Austria-Hungary

a.       Get rid of Austria-Hungary Empire (separate them into 2 countries)

b.      Pay reparations

c.       Forbid to unite with Germany

d.      Small, defensive armies

2.      Ottoman Empire

a.       Reduced size to today’s Turkey (lost empire)

b.      Pay reparations

c.       Small, defensive army

d.      Gave islands to Greece

e.       Dardanelles open under international supervision

XVIII.    Domestic Prejudice

a.       Critics of the Treaty

                                                               i.      Isolationists –

1.      Didn’t like the League of Nations

                                                             ii.      Hun-haters –

1.      Didn’t think the treaty was harsh enough

                                                            iii.      Liberals –

1.      Thought the treaty was too harsh

                                                           iv.      German Americans, Italian Americans, and others –

1.      Thought the peace treaty was not sufficiently favorable to their native lands

                                                             v.      Irish Americans

1.      Thought that the 5 overseas British dominions would give Britain undue influence in the League which would be used to force the U.S. to crush any rising for Irish independence

XIX.         Wilson’s Tour and Collapse

a.       Acceptance of the Treaty of Versailles in America

                                                               i.      Most people were favorable

                                                             ii.      Senator Lodge wanted to amend it in such a way as to “Americanize” it so that the Republicans could then take credits for the changes

                                                            iii.      He effectively used delay to muddle and divide public opinion

1.      Read the entire 264-page treaty aloud

2.      Held protracted hearings in which people of various nationalities aired their grievances

b.      Wilson’s Tour

                                                               i.      Wilson decided to make a tour of the country in September 1919 because the opinion was changing.  Two “irreconcilable” senators followed him in the same cities a few days later

                                                             ii.      Midwest –

1.      Received Wilson lukewarmly, partly because of strong German American influence

                                                            iii.      Pacific Coast –

1.      These areas welcomed Wilson

                                                           iv.      Pueblo, Colorado –

1.      Wilson collapsed from physical and nervous exhaustion

2.      Several days later a stroke paralyzed one side of his body

XX.           Defeat Through Deadlock

a.       Senator Lodge

                                                               i.      Didn’t amend the treaty

                                                             ii.      Came up with 14 formal reservations to the treaty, which served to safeguard:

1.      Monroe Doctrine

2.      Constitution

3.      American sovereignty

                                                            iii.      Lodge and others were alarmed by Article X of the League because it morally bound the U.S. to aid any member victimized by external aggression.  Congress wanted to reserve for itself the constitutional war-declaring power

b.      The End of the Treaty of Versailles In America

                                                               i.      Wilson hated Lodge and didn’t want to except his reservations to get the treaty passed (although the Democrats had similar reservations)

                                                             ii.      Wilson sent word to all true Democrats to join with the “irreconcilables” to vote down the treaty, which is what happened

                                                            iii.      These factors played a part:

1.      Lodge-Wilson feud

2.      Traditionalism (the U.S. didn’t get into alliances)

3.      Isolationism (the U.S. didn’t want to be drawn into another war)

4.      Disillusionment (shock, disappointment, and dismay at the war, causing the U.S. to not want to get into another one)

5.      Partisanship (political parties voting according to party lines)

XXI.         The “Solemn Referendum” of 1920

a.       Republican Nomination

                                                               i.      Roosevelt was dead, so wayward Bull Moose people were back with the Republicans

                                                             ii.      They devised a platform that appealed to both pro-League and anti-League supporters

                                                            iii.      Nominated Senator Warren G. Harding from Ohio (thought he was affable (warm and friendly) and malleable (capable of being used)); the vice-president would be Governor Calvin Coolidge of MA

b.      Democratic Nomination

                                                               i.      Nominated Governor James M. Cox of Ohio, who strongly supported the League.  His running mate was Assistant Navy Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt from NY

c.       Campaigning

                                                               i.      The Democrats tried to make the League a referendum issue, as Wilson had wanted

                                                             ii.      The Republicans attracted supporters from both sides because they both thought Harding would advance their cause (Harding would work for an Association of Nations – a league, but not the League)

d.      Election of 1920

                                                               i.      Harding won:

1.      16.1 million-9.1 million

2.      404-127

                                                             ii.      Eugene V. Debs won the most ever votes for the Socialist party while he was in jail – 919,000

e.       Results of the Election of 1920

                                                               i.      The people wanted a change from the do-good, star-reaching, morally sound, self-sacrificial president that Wilson was

                                                             ii.      Harding’s victory was the end of the League

XXII.      The Betrayal of Great Expectations

a.       Downfall of the League of Nations

                                                               i.      It was undercut at the start by the refusal of the U.S. to join it

                                                             ii.      Had this organization been strong enough, it may have prevented WWII

b.      Downfall of the Security Treaty

                                                               i.      The U.S. senate rejected the treaty, which would’ve given American aid to France if Germany attacked them

                                                             ii.      As a result, France began a buildup of military force.  Germany responded by doing the same

c.       Why Did the U.S. Remain Isolationist?

                                                               i.      Conduct of its Allies had been disillusioning (had been unreal or unbelievable)

                                                             ii.      Wanted to remain out of bloody European wars by having no entangling alliances

                                                            iii.      As a result, they did not assume its war-born responsibilities and embrace the role of a global leader

d.      Results of WWI

                                                               i.      America emerged as the political and economic leader of the world

                                                             ii.      European States went into decline

                                                            iii.      Germany was devastated and angry