The Triumphs and Travails of the Jeffersonian Republic

I. Federalist and Republican Mudslingers

a. Federalists –

i. Aroused many enemies from their Alien and Sedition Acts

ii. The Hamiltonian wing of the Federalist party was upset they didn’t go to war with France (created Navy for nothing). The war preparations had swelled the public debt and required new taxes (which were unpopular)

iii. Hamilton attacked Adams in a privately publishing pamphlet, which the Jeffersonians got a hold of and published

b. Jeffersonians –

i. Jefferson was accused of robbed a widow and fathered children through one of his slaves

ii. As a liberal in religion, Jefferson had earlier incurred the wrath of the orthodox clergy because of his successful struggle to separate church and state in Virginia (thought it was atheistic)

II. The Jeffersonian “Revolution of 1800”

a. Jefferson Wins

i. Adams won more electoral votes than before, but failed to get NY (he was nearly 250 votes short)

ii. Jefferson got most of the western and southern States, where universal male, white suffrage took place

iii. By counting 3/5 of the slave population in Electoral College representation, the 3/5 Compromise helped give white southern voters a bonus that helped Jefferson win the election

b. Jefferson Tied With Burr

i. Under the Constitution, the person with the second most electoral votes becomes the vice-president. If there isn’t a majority of electoral votes or if there is a tie, then the vote goes to the House

ii. Jefferson and Burr (his vp running mate), the only two candidates from the same party, received the same amount of votes

iii. Jefferson had so many enemy Federalists, that there was a deadlock in Congress until a few gave up and did not vote

iv. The transition of power went smoothly and was accepted by all

v. Jefferson believed his mission was to:

1. Restore the republican experiment

2. Check the growth of government power

3. Halt the decay of virtue

c. End of the Federalists

i. John Adams was the last person from the Federalists to become president

ii. His party slowly disappeared in the days of Andrew Jackson

III. Responsibility Breeds Moderation

a. Jefferson’s Characteristics and Personality

i. 6’2”

ii. Weak voice

iii. Served as first Secretary of State

iv. At the inauguration ceremony, he didn’t ride a carriage, but walked

v. His inaugural address was a classic statement of democratic principles:

1. The will of the majority in all cases will prevail

2. The minority possess their equal rights, which must be protected

3. Said that “We are all Republicans, we are all Federalists”

4. Pledged friendship with all nations and no entangling alliances

vi. He seated people at official dinners without regard to rank

vii. He occasionally received visitors in his pajamas

viii. Began the tradition of sending messages to Congress

ix. First to claim executive privilege

x. Jefferson found out quickly that most of the books he read and philosophies he held dearly didn’t work as well as he thought in real, practical politics

b. Jefferson In Office

i. Called the “Revolution of 1800” because it was the first time America changed presidential parties

ii. Lived up to the inauguration speech

iii. Showed unexpected moderation

iv. Dismissed few public servants for political reasons

v. He was an able politician, he was very effective and charming at dinner parties

vi. Supported republicanism and States’ rights

c. Democratic-Republicans Fade

i. Because he didn’t believe in patronage, he could appoint few Democratic-Republicans to office. As a result, he couldn’t build a loyal political following

ii. Opposition to the Federalists was their main glue holding the Democratic-Republicans together, so when the Federalists faded, so did Democratic-Republican unity

IV. Jeffersonian Restraint

a. Alien and Sedition Acts

i. Did not reenact them

ii. Pardoned those who were in jail

iii. Remitted many fines

iv. Created the Naturalization Law of 1802 –

1. Reduced the requirement of residence from 14 to 5 years

b. Excise Tax & Hamiltonian System

i. Jefferson hated this tax which bred bureaucrats and bore heavily on his farmer following. He persuaded Congress to repeal it, although it cost the U.S. $1 million per year

ii. This was the only substantial Hamiltonian system law that was done away with by Jefferson

iii. Jefferson did not tamper with:

1. Bank of the U.S.

2. Protective tariff

3. Assuming the war debt of the States

c. Secretary of Treasury Albert Gallatin

i. Agreed with Jefferson that a national debt was a problem rather than a blessing

ii. He succeeded in reducing it substantially and balanced the budget

d. First Political Party Change

i. Went relatively smoothly – people accepted Jefferson

ii. Proved that a party change wasn’t disastrous for the defeated group

1. As a result, this helped promote the two-party system

V. The “Dead Clutch” of the Judiciary

a. Judiciary Act of 1801

i. One of the last laws passed by the Federalist Congress

ii. It created 16 new federal judgeships

iii. President Adams remained at his desk signed the commissions of the Federalist “midnight judges” near the end of his last day

iv. Federal judges are appointed for life

v. This aroused resentment as an attempt by the ousted party to keep power in the federal government

vi. Jefferson condemned the last-minute appointments

vii. The newly elected Republican Congress repealed the Judiciary Act of 1801 in 1802

b. Chief Justice John Marshall

i. Was Thomas Jefferson’s cousin

ii. Served at Valley Forge, causing him to hate a weak central authority and become a life-long Federalist

iii. Formal legal schooling lasted 6 weeks

iv. However, he had a powerful intellect and commanding personality

v. Served about 34 years

vi. Arguably the greatest Supreme Court Justice of all-time

c. Judicial Review

i. William Marbury was appointed by Adams to be a justice of the peace for DC

ii. James Madison, the secretary of state, was ordered by the president not to deliver the commission

iii. Marbury learned of this news and sued for its delivery in the Supreme Court based on part of the Judiciary Act of 1789

iv. Marshall dismissed his suit, saying that the part of the Judiciary Act of 1789 that allowed him to sue directly in the Supreme Court was unconstitutional

1. Article III, Section 2 of the Constitution. This says that the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in:

a. those cases to which a State is a party

b. those affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls

v. Until the case of Marbury v. Madison (1803), controversy had clouded the question of who had the final authority to determine the meaning of the Constitution. Jefferson in the Kentucky resolutions (1789) had tried to allot that right to the individual States

vi. Marshall in this landmark case established judicial review – the power being able to declare acts of Congress and actions taken by the Executive branch to be unconstitutional

d. Samuel Chase

i. This spurred the Jeffersonians to seek revenge

ii. Samuel Chase was so arrogant and unpopular that in 1804 impeachment charges were voted on by the House of Representatives based on “high crimes, and misdemeanors”

iii. The determination of guilt or innocence was passed on to the Senate. The Senate found him to be not guilty…but that he just had a big mouth

iv. Consequences:

1. Jefferson could not replace Chase with a judge from his own party

2. No other president has tried to reshape the Supreme Court through impeachment

3. It ensured the principle of separation of powers

VI. Jefferson, A Reluctant Warrior

a. Reducing the Military

i. One of Jefferson’s first acts as president was to reduce the military

ii. Critics called it penny-pinching

iii. However, there were two other reasons why Jefferson downsized the military:

1. Jefferson’s reluctance to invest was more about republican ideals. He hoped that American might win over friends through “peaceful coercion” and set an example for the world

2. Democratic-Republicans also distrusted standing armies as invitations to dictatorship

3. Saw little point to building a navy

b. North African Barbary States

i. Put Jefferson’s principles to the test

ii. These states had a history of blackmailing and plundering

iii. Preceding administrations had to buy protection

iv. When the pirates became dissatisfied with there protection money, they informally declared war on the United States

v. He dispatched the navy to Tripoli (the scene of major fighting)

vi. Obtained a treaty for $60,000 – served as ransom for captured Americans

c. Jefferson Builds the Navy

i. During the war with the Barbary pirates, Jefferson became fascinated with a little fleet of fast (but frail & had one gun) vessels

ii. He believed that they would prove valuable in guarding American shores and need not embroil the Republic in diplomatic incidents on the high seas

iii. 200 were constructed

VII. The Louisiana Godsend

a. Napoleon Bonaparte

i. Induced the king of Spain to cede to France the region of Louisiana

ii. Rumors were confirmed when the Spaniards at New Orleans withdrew the right of deposit that guaranteed America warehouse privileges (to await outgoing vessels)

iii. Americans were angered and wanted to take New Orleans forcefully

b. The American Envoy In France

i. Jefferson became concerned that if ever America wanted New Orleans, it would have to fight France. If the U.S. wanted to fight France, they would have to have allies

ii. As a result, Jefferson sent James Monroe to (join Robert Livingston in) Paris in 1803. He was to buy New Orleans and as much land to its east (FL) as they could get for a maximum of $10 million

iii. If the purchase failed, then they were to work on an alliance with Britain

c. Louisiana Purchase

i. Napoleon suddenly decided to sell all of Louisiana and abandon his dream of a New World empire. There were three reasons for this:

1. He had failed in his efforts to reconquer the sugar-rich island of Santo Domingo, for which Louisiana was to serve as a source of foodstuffs. The island’s ex-slaves were revolting against the French and mosquito’s carrying yellow fever were killing too many French troops

2. Napoleon was about to fight Britain for control of the seas. If he lost, he might have to make a gift to Britain. He would rather make a profit by selling the Louisiana area for money for his wars at home

3. Napoleon hoped that by giving the U.S. Louisiana, they might one day be a military and naval power that would be against Britain

ii. Out of the blue, the French foreign minister asked him how much Livingston would give for all Louisiana. They eventually made a treaty signed on April 30, 1803, ceding Louisiana to the U.S. for $15 million. The area would double the size of the U.S.

d. Jefferson’s Reaction and Conflicting Conscience

i. Jefferson was shocked:

1. Didn’t say $15 million

2. Didn’t say all of the LA territory

3. Didn’t get FL

ii. He was a strict constructionalist and didn’t think the Constitution gave him this power

iii. On the other hand, he knew:

1. That the domain would get rid of the possibility of war with Spain or France

2. It avoided an alliance with Britain

3. All significant powers were now off North America (supported Washington’s farewell address)

4. It would ensure an empire for America to thrive in

iv. He accepted the offer before Napoleon could withdraw it and accepted the fact that it was unconstitutional

VIII. Louisiana in the Long View

a. Other Results

i. Set a precedent that acquisition of foreign territory and peoples by purchase of the U.S. They would be incorporated as equals

ii. The government accepted their legal code based on French civil law, rather than English common law. Louisiana’s State law is based on French origins today

iii. Indian people would not be as fortunate

b. Exploration of the Louisiana Purchase

i. In the spring of 1804, Jefferson sent his personal secretary and cartographer named Meriwether Lewis and a young army officer and tracker named William Clark to explore the northern part of the Louisiana Purchase

ii. They were aided by Sacajawea, an Indian woman (Shoshoni) who acted as a translator

iii. Lewis and Clark returned after 2 ½ years with:

1. Scientific observations

2. Maps

3. Stuffed animals

4. Knowledge of the Indians in the area

5. Viability of an overland trail to the Pacific

a. Missionaries

b. Fur-traders

c. Pioneering settlers

6. Stories

iv. Zebulon M. Pike

1. Explored the Mississippi River and southern portion of the Louisiana Territory

2. The Colorado mountain peak bears his name

IX. The Aaron Burr Conspiracies

a. Aaron Burr Conspiracy #1 (this conspiracy is considered sketchy by historians)

i. Such a large territory raised doubts of the reach of the federal government and the power it had over the U.S.

ii. Jefferson believed that Burr tried to take the election of 1800 from him, but had promised he wouldn’t. Aaron Burr, was dropped as Jefferson’s VP in the second term

iii. Burr joined with a group of Federalist extremists to plot the secession of New England and New York. He ran for governor of NY and wanted to take action afterwards

iv. Alexander Hamilton exposed and foiled the conspiracy

v. Consequently, Burr challenged Hamilton to a duel (Hamilton had attacked Burr publicly and privately for many years), which was beginning to be illegal in some States. Hamilton didn’t want to duel, but felt his honor was at stake. He refused to fire at Burr, and Burr killed him in one shot

vi. The ending of Hamilton’s life ended the last remaining leader/hope in the Federalist party. It also discredited Burr

b. Aaron Burr Conspiracy #2 (this conspiracy is considered sketchy by historians – don’t know his intentions)

i. Burr turned to the area west of the Mississippi, where he struck up an allegiance with a General Wilkinson who was the military governor of the Louisiana territory

ii. Burr and the general planned to:

1. Separate the western part of the U.S. from the East

2. Expand their territory by invading Mexico and Florida

iii. When the general learned that Jefferson had gotten wind of the plot, he betrayed Burr and fled to New Orleans

iv. This made it apparent that it might be difficult to buy territory, but more difficult to control it

c. Aaron Burr’s Trial

i. Chief Justice John Marshall insisted that a guilty verdict required proof of overt acts of treason, not merely treasonous intentions (Art III, Sec III)

ii. Burr was acquitted and fled to Europe

d. Aaron Burr Conspiracy #3

i. Urged Napoleon to make peace with Britain and launch a joint invasion of America

ii. He eventually returned to NY as a lawyer

X. Neutral America

a. Election of 1804

i. Jefferson won over C.C. Pinckney – 162-14

b. France’s War With Britain

i. France fought with Britain from 1803-1814

ii. Battle of Trafalgar (1805) – Britain gained sea superiority

iii. Battle of Austerlitz (1805) – France gained land superiority in Europe (defeated the Austrian and Russian armies)

c. Orders In Council, Napoleon’s Response, and Impressment

i. Britain issued a series of Orders in Council. This closed the European ports under French control to foreign shipping, unless the vessels first stopped at a British port

ii. Napoleon responded by ordering the seizure of all merchant ships that entered British ports

iii. Consequently, there was no way to trade with either nation without facing hostilities

iv. In addition, impressment – the forcible enlistment of sailors – was a practice commonly used by the British. 6,000 U.S. citizens were impressed by the British from 1808 to 1811 alone. Most died or were killed, leaving love-ones enraged

d. U.S. Frigate Chesapeake

i. 10 miles off the coast of VA, a British captain demanded the surrender of 4 alleged deserters. The American commander refused the request. The British warship damaged the ship, killing three Americans and wounding 18. The 4 deserters were also captured

ii. Britain admitted that they were in the wrong

iii. Nonetheless, Americans were infuriated, but there was no war

XI. The Hated Embargo

a. Avoiding War

i. It was weak, thanks largely to Jefferson being against expanding the army and navy

ii. The warring nations in Europe depended heavily on foodstuffs and raw materials from the U.S. If the U.S. cut off their exports, the offending powers would be forced to agree to their demands

b. Embargo Act of 1807

i. Congress passed this law to forbid the export of all goods from the U.S., whether in American or foreign ships. This embodied Jefferson’s idea of “peaceful coercion”

ii. If it worked, the embargo would vindicate the rights of neutral nations and point to a new way of conducting foreign affairs

iii. If it failed, Jefferson feared America would perish, subjugated to the European powers or sucked into their war

c. Effects of the Embargo & the Non-Intercourse Act (1809)

i. Commerce came to a near halt, leaving many unemployed

ii. It affected the commerce of New England, as well as the rest of the country, as farmers weren’t able to shop cotton, grain, and tobacco

iii. An illegal trade mushroomed in 1808, especially along the Canadian border where it was hard to control --- they reversed the letter of embargo to say “O Grab Me”

iv. Many criticized Jefferson as being more tyrannical than King George III

v. It revived the Federalist party, which received 46 electoral votes out of 175 in the next election (rather than the 14 in the previous one)

vi. New England talked of succession

d. The Embargo Is Repealed

i. Congress repealed the embargo in March 1809 (just before Jefferson would leave office)

ii. A substitute was passed in the Non-Intercourse Act –

1. Formally reopened trade with all the nations of the world except Britain and France

XII. Madison’s Gamble

a. Madison Is Elected

i. Following Washington’s example, Jefferson left office after two terms

ii. He strongly favored the nomination and election of his friend and fellow Virginian, James Madison

iii. Shortest president – 5’4”, bald, had a weak voice

iv. He was crippled as president by factions within his party and cabinet

b. Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 & Macon’s Bill

i. Was due to expire in 1810

ii. Congress passed Macon’s Bill in the same year

1. It reopened trade with all the world

2. If either Britain or France repealed its commercial restrictions, then America would trade freely with them and embargo the other

iii. Madison thought the bill was a shameful capitulation (a surrender). It practically admitted that the U.S. could not survive without one of the belligerents as a commercial ally

c. Napoleon’s Response To Macon’s Bill

i. Britain had justified its Orders in Council as retaliation for Napoleon’s actions, implying that trade restrictions would be lifted if the French decrees disappeared. Now the French said the same thing

ii. Napoleon actually hoped that the U.S. would resume its embargo against the British, thus creating a partial blockade against his enemy. This way, Napoleon wouldn’t have to use his navy for a blockade

d. Madison’s Response To Napoleon

i. Madison took Napoleon’s comments as evidence of repeal and began trading with France

ii. The British did not revoke the Orders in Council

iii. Madison embargoed British according to the terms of Macon’s Bill

iv. He feared that war was coming

XIII. Tecumseh and the Prophet

a. The New Congress

i. Met in 1811

ii. Many of the men who wanted “peaceful coercion” like Jefferson were gone

iii. They were replaced by “war hawks” – people who wanted war. They were weary of:

1. Hearing how their father had “whipped” the British

2. The impressments of American soldiers

3. The British Orders in Council that dammed the flow of American trade

4. The Indian threat to pioneer settlers

b. Tecumseh and Tenskwatawa (the Prophet)

i. They were both Shawnee Indians

ii. Concluded that the time had come to stop the onrush of settlers in the West

iii. They began to put together a confederacy of all the tribes east of the Mississippi

iv. Frontiersmen and their war-hawks in Congress became convinced that British “scalp buyers” in Canada were helping the Indians grow in strength

v. Future president William Henry Harrison, governor of the Indiana Territory, gathered an army and advanced on Tecumseh’s headquarters near Tippecanoe River

vi. Tecumseh was recruiting in the South, but the Prophet attacked Harrison. The Shawnees were routed, the Prophet was killed, and their settlement burned. Tecumseh then issued the curse over the office of the presidency

vii. Tecumseh eventually entered into an alliance with the British, who he would fight for until his death in the War of 1812

XIV. Mr. Madison’s War

a. Why War?

i. Indian Attacks –

1. The British armed Indians

2. War hawks felt that the only way to remove the menace of the Indians was to wipe out their Canadian base

ii. Restoring American Confidence –

1. For 5 years, the Americans had tried to steer between the warring European powers to set a course between submission and battle

2. However, it was a struggle and was met with hardship

3. Madison and his party came to believe that only a vigorous assertion of American rights could demonstrate the viability of American nationhood. If they couldn’t fight, then they would be discredited in the eyes of other nations

b. Declaring War

i. Madison asked Congress to declare war in June 1812. Vote in:

1. House – 79-49 for war

2. Senate – 19-13 for war

ii. South and West – most support for war & in populous States (PA & VA)

iii. New England – Federalists condemned the conflict

1. Many Federalists were pro-British sympathizers

2. Resented the Republicans’ sympathy with Napoleon, who they regarded as a butcher and anti-Christ

3. They also opposed annexing Canada because they would have more agrarian States that would increase the voting strength of the Republicans

4. New England gold holders lent more to the British treasury than to the U.S. treasury

5. Federalist farmers send many foodstuffs to British-held Canada

c. Outlook of the War

i. New England’s governors refused to permit their militia to serve outside their own States

ii. The U.S. had to fight both old England and New England

iii. Most saw no hope of victory, but not much other choice than fighting either