The Ordeal of Reconstruction

 

I.                    The Problems of Peace

a.       Jefferson Davis

                                                               i.      Was arrested and jailed for two years

                                                             ii.      He and his fellow “conspirators” were released because the odds were that no Virginia jury would convict them

                                                            iii.      All rebel leaders were pardoned by President Johnson in 1868.  However, civil action was not disallowed until 30 years later

b.      Destruction in the South

                                                               i.      Cities were destroyed (Charleston, Atlanta, Richmond)

                                                             ii.      Economic life came to a halt

1.      Banks and businesses closed

2.      Factories weren’t operating or were destroyed

3.      Railroad lines were destroyed

4.      Agriculture collapsed (no one there to work the land and the Yankees had stolen from farms).  They didn’t recover to 1860 production until 1870

5.      Aristocracy lost mansions, investments, land, and slaves ($2 billion worth)

c.       Southern Attitudes

                                                               i.      Many remained defiant and upset

                                                             ii.      Many believed that their view of secession was correct

II.                 Freedmen Define Freedom

a.       Emancipation

                                                               i.      Took effect unevenly in the Southern States

                                                             ii.      As Union armies marched in and out of various localities, many blacks found themselves emancipated and then reenslaved.  Some forcefully reenslaved blacks, while others fought the State legislatures and the Supreme Court

                                                            iii.      Some blacks wanted to remain loyal to their plantation master, while others joined Union troops

                                                           iv.      All slaves owners were eventually forced to recognize their slaves’ freedom.  They would assemble their slaves in front of their house and tell them that they were now free

b.      Reaction To Emancipation

                                                               i.      Many former slaves changed their names and wanted to be addressed as “Mr” or “Mrs”

                                                             ii.      Bought better clothes

                                                            iii.      Searched for their long-lost spouses, parents, and children (emancipation strengthened the black family)

                                                           iv.      Moved to search for opportunity (some steamboat captains refused to transport them)

c.       Church

                                                               i.      As slaves, blacks had worshipped along with whites.  Now, they formed their own churches pastured by their own ministers

                                                             ii.      Black churches grew quickly

1.      Baptist Church: 1850 – 150,000 blacks; 1870 – 500,000 blacks

2.      Methodist Episcopal Church: 1865 – 100,000 blacks; 1875 – 400,000 blacks

                                                            iii.      Church was the basis of black community life and they gave rise to aid societies that helped blacks protect their newly won freedom

d.      Education

                                                               i.      Denied to blacks under slavery

                                                             ii.      Freemen built schools, but they couldn’t supply them with enough qualified black teachers.  They obtained serves from the government and from the American Missionary Association, who sent white women to teach

III.               The Freedmen’s Bureau

a.       Why Was the Freedmen’s Bureau Created?

                                                               i.      Many blacks were unskilled, illiterate, and without property or money

                                                             ii.      They didn’t know how to survive, so Congress created this group in 1865

b.      What Was the Purpose of the Freedmen’s Bureau?

                                                               i.      To be like a welfare agency.  It was to provide:

1.      Food

2.      Clothing

3.      Medical care

4.      Education

                                                             ii.      It also organized the African-American vote for the Republican Party

                                                            iii.      Ex-slave States were divided into districts that were managed by assistant commissioners

                                                           iv.      Union general Oliver Howard, who later founded Howard University, led the bureau

c.       Successes of the Freedmen’s Bureau

                                                               i.      200,000 blacks learned how to read.  Many former slaves had a passion for learning because:

1.      They wanted to close the gap between themselves and whites

2.      They longed to read the Word of God

d.      Failures of the Freedmen’s Bureau

                                                               i.      Former slaves were supposed to be settled on 40 acre tracts of land confiscated from the Confederates, but this usually didn’t happen

                                                             ii.      Local administrators often collaborated with planters in expelling blacks from towns and persuading them to sign labor contracts to work for their former masters

e.       End of the Freedmen’s Bureau

                                                               i.      Many feared the end of white racial dominance

                                                             ii.      Because they organized the African-American vote for the Republican Party, it increased animosity toward the Bureau in the South

                                                            iii.      White supremacist views (including president Andrew Johnson) prevailed and the bureau was ended in 1872

IV.              President Andrew Johnson

a.       Characteristics of Andrew Johnson

                                                               i.      Born to poor parents in North Carolina

                                                             ii.      Was orphaned in early age

                                                            iii.      Never attended school (taught himself to read and his wife taught him how to write and do math)

                                                           iv.      Was an indentured servant (a tailor)

                                                             v.      Was involved in politics in TN as early as 17

                                                           vi.      Was hot-tempered, contentious, and stubborn

b.      Andrew Johnson As Vice-President

                                                               i.      Nominated as Lincoln’s Vice-President when he needed to attract support from the War Democrats and pro-Southerners (Johnson was a Democrat)

                                                             ii.      Was afflicted with typhoid fever and was urged by his friends to drink to cure it.  He was drunk on inauguration day

c.       Beliefs As A Politician

                                                               i.      Was a champion of poor whites and was against planter aristocrats (he himself owned a few slaves eventually)

                                                             ii.      Elected to Congress and attracted much favorable attention from the North when he advocated against his State seceding

                                                            iii.      Was for States’ rights and the Constitution

d.      Enemies of Johnson

                                                               i.      North – He was a Southerner who didn’t understand the North

                                                             ii.      South – A TN who had earned the distrust of the South

                                                            iii.      Democrat – Was never accepted by the Republicans

                                                           iv.      People – A president who had never been elected to the office

V.                 Presidential Reconstruction

a.       10% Plan (1863)

                                                               i.      Lincoln wanted restoration to be easy and without malice

                                                             ii.      Lincoln believed that the Southern States never legally seceded from the Union.  Therefore, restoration should be simple.  His plan called for:

1.      A State could be reintegrated into the Union when 10% of its voters in the presidential election of 1860 had taken an oath of allegiance to the U.S. and pledged to abide by emancipation

2.      Creation of a new State government

3.      Recognition

                                                            iii.      Republicans in Congress turned down the plan.  They feared the restoration of the planter aristocracy and the possible reenslavement of blacks

b.      Wade-Davis Bill of 1864

                                                               i.      Republicans wanted a harsher plan because they feared restoration of the planter aristocracy to power and the possible re-enslavement of blacks

                                                             ii.      Required that 50% of a State’s voters take the oath of allegiance

                                                            iii.      Lincoln pocket-vetoed the bill (Refused to sign it after Congress had adjourned – so it expires in 10 days)

                                                           iv.      Congress refused to seat delegates from Louisiana after that State had reorganized its government in accordance with Lincoln’s 10% plan in 1864

c.       Lincoln vs. Congress

                                                               i.      Unlike Lincoln, many in Congress insisted that the South had left the Union

                                                             ii.      As a result, they forfeited all their rights and could only be readmitted as “conquered provinces” as decided by Congress

d.      Moderate Republicans vs. Radical Republicans

                                                               i.      Moderate Republicans –

1.      Agreed with Lincoln.  However, they wanted the South readmitted on Congress’ terms, not the president’s

                                                             ii.      Radical Republicans –

1.      Believed that the South should pay for what it did

2.      Wanted Southern social structure uprooted, planters punished, and emancipated blacks protected by the federal government

3.      Many secretly liked that Lincoln was assassinated and Johnson, who shared their hatred for the planter aristocrats, was now in power

e.       Andrew Johnson’s Plan

                                                               i.      Recognized several State governments based on Lincoln’s 10% Plan

                                                             ii.      He wanted:

1.      Disfranchisement of certain leading Confederates, although they could petition him for pardons (he pardoned many people)

2.      Special State conventions that would:

a.       Repeal the ordinances of secession

b.      Repudiate all Confederate debts

c.       Ratify the slave-freeing 13th Amendment (December 1865)

3.      Any State complying would be swiftly admitted to the Union

VI.              The Black Codes

a.       Discriminatory Laws Against Blacks

                                                               i.      Black Codes were passed in Southern States immediately after the Civil War.  Their intent was to:

1.      Ensure a stable and subservient labor force:

a.       Harsh penalties were put on laborers who signed contracts that committed them to work for the same employer for 1 year, usually at low wages

                                                                                                                                       i.      Could be captured and dragged back to work

                                                                                                                                     ii.      Fined and then have to work to pay it off

2.      Establish racial subservience:

a.       Forbade blacks to serve on juries

b.      Barred blacks from renting

c.       Not allowed to vote

b.      The Burden of Blacks

                                                               i.      Blacks had trouble being economically independent because they lacked capital and only had their labor to offer.  Many became sharecropper farmers

                                                             ii.      On top of all this, they had the oppressive laws

c.       All of this angered Northerners who had just fought for their freedom

VII.            Congressional Reconstruction

a.       Confederates In Congress

                                                               i.      When many of the Southern States were readmitted, voters instinctively chose their experienced statesmen.  Most had been in the Confederacy (even ex-Confederate vice-president Alexander Stephens – who was still under indictment for treason)

                                                             ii.      The Republicans were not in the mood to embrace their former enemies (mostly all were Democrats).  Many wanted the political advantage of passing laws quickly without them

                                                            iii.      The Republicans also realized that now the former black slaves would count as 5/5 instead of 3/5, giving the South more representatives in Congress (12 more)

b.      What Could Happen With the South Having More Power in Congress?

                                                               i.      Re-enslave blacks (through the Black Codes)

                                                             ii.      Lower tariffs

                                                            iii.      Reroute the transcontinental railroad

                                                           iv.      Repeal the Homestead Act

                                                             v.      Repudiate the national debt

VIII.         Johnson Clashes With Congress

a.       December 1865

                                                               i.      13th Amendment is passed

                                                             ii.      Johnson declares that the Union is restored

b.      February 1866

                                                               i.      The President vetoes a bill that would’ve extended the life of the Freedman’s Bureau

c.       March 1866

                                                               i.      Civil Rights Bill was passed.  It gave blacks U.S. citizenship

d.      April 1866

                                                               i.      Johnson vetoed the bill, but Congress overrode it

                                                             ii.      Johnson would be known as “Sir Veto” and “Andy Veto”

e.       June 1866

                                                               i.      Republicans feared that the Southerners might one day control Congress and repeal the Civil Rights Bill, so they worked on creating an amendment.  Southern State would have to ratify the amendment before their congressmen could be readmitted to Congress

                                                             ii.      The 14th amendment (1868) was passed:

1.      Gave U.S. citizenship

2.      Any State that denies eligible citizens the right to vote will have a proportionate number of representatives taken away from them

3.      Anyone who had taken an oath to be a federal or State official before the Civil War and then became a Confederate is disqualified from holding federal and State offices

4.      Repudiated all Confederate debts

                                                            iii.      Some wanted the amendment to have the right to vote

                                                           iv.      Johnson urged the Southern States to reject the amendment, and all but one did

IX.              Johnson Clashes With Congress Even More

a.       Congressional Elections of 1866

                                                               i.      Johnson wanted to secure more people who would favor his soft Southern policies

                                                             ii.      He went on a tour of various cities to express his views.  During the tour, he accused radicals in Congress of having planned large-scale antiblack riots and murder in the South

                                                            iii.      People hurled insults at him during the speeches and rumors of drunkenness were revived

                                                           iv.      This caused more Republicans to enter Congress – they had a 2/3 majority in both houses

X.                 Republican Principles and Programs

a.       Radical Republicans

                                                               i.      Senate –

1.      Led by Charles Sumner – labored for black freedom and racial equality

                                                             ii.      House –

1.      Led by Thaddeus Stevens – defended runaway slaves without fee and hated rebellious white Southerners.  He was a leading member on the Joint Committee on Reconstruction

                                                            iii.      These people were opposed to swift restoration of the South and wanted to apply federal power to bring about a drastic social and economic transformation in the South

b.      Moderate Republicans

                                                               i.      Preferred policies that favored States’ rights

                                                             ii.      Wanted the States to be restrained from taking away citizen’s rights, rather than the federal government being involved in individuals lives

XI.              Reconstruction by the Sword

a.       Reconstruction Act of 1867

                                                               i.      Divided the South into 5 military districts

                                                             ii.      Each was commanded by a Union general and policed by Union soldiers

                                                            iii.      Disfranchised tens of thousands of former Confederates

                                                           iv.      Passed over Johnson’s veto

b.      Steps To Readmission

                                                               i.      To be readmitted, States were required to ratify the 14th Amendment (gave former slaves their rights as citizens)

                                                             ii.      Had to guarantee in State constitutions full suffrage for former adult male slaves.  Moderates wanted the State governments to assume responsibility for protecting blacks rights, but that proved to be a bad idea

c.       15th Amendment

                                                               i.      To make sure that the Southern States wouldn’t amend their constitutions once they were readmitted, the 15th Amendment was passed in 1870

                                                             ii.      The Republicans were closely watching and still virtually controlled the State governments in the South, so opposition to the amendment was at a minimum

d.      Ex parte Milligan (1866)

                                                               i.      The Supreme Court case that ruled that military tribunals could not try civilians, even during wartime, in areas where the civil courts were open

                                                             ii.      Peacetime military rule was against the Constitution

e.       Southern States Are Readmitted

                                                               i.      After passing the Civil War amendments and making new State constitutions, all Southern States were readmitted with full rights by 1870

                                                             ii.      In 1877, the last federal troops were removed

XII.            No Women Voters

a.       Women’s Rights

                                                               i.      Women played a large role in the prewar abolitionist movement.  Woman’s Loyal League – 400,000 signatures on petitions asking Congress to pass a constitutional amendment prohibiting slavery

                                                             ii.      Many also served in the war

                                                            iii.      They pointed out that both women and blacks lacked basic civil rights

b.      14th Amendment & 15th Amendments Exclude Women

                                                               i.      For the first time, the word male was inserted into the Constitution.  It was in reference to a citizen’s right to vote in the 14th Amendment (it was intended to give blacks the same rights as women – citizenship, but not the right to vote)

                                                             ii.      Stanton and Anthony campaigned against the amendment

                                                            iii.      The 15th Amendment proposed to prohibit denial of the vote on the basis of “race, color, or previous condition of servitude”

                                                           iv.      Stanton and Anthony wanted the word “sex” added to the list, but it wasn’t added

c.       It would take women 50 more years to get the right to vote

XIII.         The Realities of Radical Reconstruction in the South

a.       Blacks and the Right To Vote

                                                               i.      The 14th Amendment was intended to give blacks the same rights as women – citizenship, but not the right to vote.  However, many people soon wanted to give former slaves the right to vote (although white Southerners were being denied the vote)

                                                             ii.      Most Northern States, before ratification of the 15th Amendment in 1870, withheld the right to vote to their black minorities

b.      Union League

                                                               i.      Blacks began to organize politically

                                                             ii.      Turned the League into a network of political clubs that educated members in their civic duties and campaigned for Republican candidates

                                                            iii.      Mission expanded to include:

1.      Building black churches and schools

2.      Representing black grievances

3.      Recruiting militias to protect black communities from white retaliation

c.       African American Women and Politics

                                                               i.      Didn’t obtain the right to vote

                                                             ii.      However, they faithfully attended the parades and tallies common in black communities during the early years of Reconstruction and helped assemble mass meetings in the newly constructed black churches

                                                            iii.      They even showed up at the constitutional conventions held throughout the South

d.      Blacks In Office

                                                               i.      Black males sat down with whites to hammer out new State constitutions (universal male suffrage)

                                                             ii.      No black governors or majorities were elected in State legislatures during the next election, but blacks did begin to be elected to office

                                                            iii.      Between 1868 and 1876, there were 2 black Senators and 14 representatives

                                                           iv.      Blacks also served in State governments and local governments

e.       Reaction of Southerners To Blacks In Office

                                                               i.      Were deeply offended.  Labeled people as:

                                                             ii.      Scalawags –

1.      Derogatory name for Southerners working for or supporting the federal government during Reconstruction

2.      Some of these Southerners had opposed the war from the beginning, while others helped Reconstruction for financial gains

3.      Became a target of the KKK

                                                            iii.      Carpetbaggers –

1.      Derogatory Southern name for Northerners who came to the South to participate in Reconstruction governments (supposedly for personal power and profit – many truly wanted to help modernize the South)

2.      Name came from the cloth bags of possessions many of them used to travel South with

3.      Response by some violent Southern whites led to organization of the KKK

f.        What Did The New Radical Governments Do?

                                                               i.      Introduced much needed reforms:

1.      Good public schools

2.      Tax systems streamlined

3.      Public works launched

                                                             ii.      Most reforms were welcome and retained by the all-white governments that later returned to power

g.       Corruption In State Governments

                                                               i.      Some people were in it for the money.  Some legislatures or governors purchased the following using the government’s money:

1.      Hams

2.      Perfumes

3.      Suspenders

4.      Clothes

5.      Champagne

                                                             ii.      Corruption took place in the North as well

                                                            iii.      Political machines began to develop

XIV.         The Ku Klux Klan

a.       Creation of the KKK

                                                               i.      Founded in TN in 1866 out of resentment of the success and ability of black legislators and the changing of society

                                                             ii.      The white dress was intended to be frightening.  They also used force to intimidate (flogging, mutilation, and murder – 25 were killed and 200 injured in Louisiana in 1868)

                                                            iii.      Many blacks started not voting because of them

b.      Force Acts of 1870 and 1871

                                                               i.      Outraged, Congress passed these acts that outlawed these practices, but intimidation had already occurred

                                                             ii.      Many continued their actions, but renamed their clubs deceiving names, such as “dancing clubs,” “missionary societies,” and “rifle clubs”

c.       Failure To Enforce the 14th and 15th Amendments

                                                               i.      Disenfranshisement of blacks began around the late 1800s

                                                             ii.      It was achieved by intimidation, fraud, and trickery

1.      Literacy tests – Administered by whites to the advantage of illiterate whites

2.      Grandfather clauses

3.      Poll taxes

4.      White primary

XV.           Johnson Is Impeached

a.       Tenure of Office Act of 1867

                                                               i.      Passed over Johnson’s veto

                                                             ii.      The law required the president to get the consent of the Senate before he could remove his appointees once they had been approved by the Senate.  The intent was to keep in the cabinet the Secretary of War, Edwin Stanton, who was appointed by Lincoln and for hard reconstruction of the South (was a radical Republican)

                                                            iii.      Johnson removed Stanton on the grounds that Stanton had been appointed by Lincoln and confirmed by the Senate under Lincoln’s presidency, not his own

                                                           iv.      In reality, Congress didn’t like Johnson’s easy reconstruction policy for the South and resented all the vetoes

                                                             v.      Articles of impeachment were drawn up against Johnson

b.      Impeachment Proceedings

                                                               i.      House – Impeached Johnson on:

1.      High crimes and misdemeanors (relating to violations of the Tenure of Office Act)

2.      Disgrace, ridicule, hatred, contempt, and reproach (relating to his verbal attacks on Congress)

                                                             ii.      Senate – Acquitted Johnson by 1 vote

XVI.         Johnson Is Found Not-Guilty

a.       Why Was Johnson Found Not Guilty?

                                                               i.      Destabilization – People feared that if Johnson could be found guilty, it could establish a dangerous precedent

                                                             ii.      Checks and Balances – People felt that if convicted, it would be an abuse of the principle of checks and balances

                                                            iii.      President Pro Tempore of the Senate – Radical Republican Ben Wade would be next in line for the presidency because there was no vice-president.  Many people didn’t like his policies

                                                           iv.      No More Obstruction – Johnson promised that he would no longer obstruct Republican policies in return for remaining in office

b.      Results of Impeachment and Non-Conviction

                                                               i.      Showed that the country was stable – there could’ve been an armed uprising in less stable republics

                                                             ii.      Avoided a precedent that would have weakened the executive branch

                                                            iii.      Johnson had a bad temper, bad judgment, and was stubborn, but he was truly not guilty of anything

XVII.      The Purchase of Alaska

a.       Russian Plans For Alaska

                                                               i.      The Russians were looking to sell Alaska because:

1.      Russians were overextended in North America

2.      They also thought that if they were in another war with Britain, they might lose the area to them

3.      The area was a growing economic liability – no resources there

                                                             ii.      They preferred to sell it to America because they wanted to strengthen them against a possible enemy in Britain

b.      Seward’s Folly

                                                               i.      Secretary of State William Seward signed a treaty in 1867 with Russia that transferred Alaska to the U.S. for $7.2 million

                                                             ii.      He was criticized for purchasing this frozen wasteland

c.       Why Did Congress and the Public Sanction the Purchase?

                                                               i.      Russia had been friendly to the North during the Civil War

                                                             ii.      The territory was rumored to have a lot of furs, fish, and gold (it might pan out profitably in the future)

XVIII.    The Heritage of Reconstruction

a.       Results of Reconstruction

                                                               i.      Lincoln, Johnson, and everyone else didn’t know what it’d be like after the war ended.  In retrospect, it’s amazing that it wasn’t harsher

                                                             ii.      Republicans – wanted to protect the freed slaves and to promote the fortunes of the Republican party (reconstruction actually conferred only fleeting benefits on blacks and virtually extinguished the Republican party in the South for 100 years)

                                                            iii.      Reconstruction ended up going badly in the South because:

1.      Deep-rooted racism

2.      American resistance to tampering with property rights

3.      Rigid loyalty to the principle of self-government

4.      Increasing indifference in the North to the plight of blacks

b.      The Old South was in many ways more resurrected than reconstructed