Manifest Destiny and Its Legacy

I. The Accession of John Tyler

a. Harrison’s Death

i. Harrison made the longest inaugural speech in history while in bad weather

ii. He contracted pneumonia and died after only 4 weeks in office. It was the shortest administration in American history

b. John Tyler

i. Tyler, who was the vice-president, was now president

ii. 6’ tall

iii. Slim

iv. He had left the Jacksonian Democrats for the Whigs because he couldn’t take the dictatorial tactics of Jackson. However, the minority wing of the Whigs that he embraced had a few Jefferson States’ righters

v. Tyler had run with Harrison to attract voters from this group

vi. Tyler was against the unwritten platform of the Whigs:

1. Pro-bank

2. Pro-protective tariff

3. Pro-internal improvements

II. John Tyler: A President Without a Party

a. Financial Reform

i. Henry Clay drove through the Whig-dominated Congress a bill that would create a new Bank of the United States

ii. Tyler vetoed the bill on practical and constitutional grounds

iii. Another bill was passed to try to satisfy Tyler’s objections (it provided for a “Fiscal Corporation”)

iv. Tyler vetoed the bill

b. Whig Reaction

i. Called “His Accidency” and “Executive Ass”

ii. Burned in effigy

iii. He received numerous letters threatening him with death

iv. Formally expelled from his party by a caucus of Whig congressmen

v. All of his cabinet resigned except Secretary of State Daniel Webster, who was in delicate negotiations with England

vi. There was a serious attempt to impeach him in the House

c. Tariff Bill

i. Tyler wanted more federal revenue, but didn’t like that this bill would distribute the money among the States from the sale of public lands in the West

ii. He vetoed the bill

iii. The Whigs redrafted the bill, taking out the distribution scheme

iv. Tyler signed the law, created the Tariff of 1842

v. Later, pressure to create a higher tariff would decrease as Americans got out of the depression

III. A War of Words With Britain

a. Anti-British Feelings

i. Caused by:

1. The two wars

2. British travelers wrote of how America was full of tobacco spitting, slave auctioneering, lynching, and other bad features of the country

3. Magazines did the same sort of thing

b. America and British Financial Relationship

i. America is a borrowing nation (because of all the canals and railroads)

ii. Britain is a lending nation

iii. When the Panic of 1837 broke out, several States defaulted on their bonds or repudiated them

c. Canadian Rebellion of 1837

i. A small number of Canadians started a rebellion

ii. They were joined by hundreds of Americans who were wanting to help Canada gain freedom from the British. The Americans also gave supplies

iii. As in Texas, the national government couldn’t uphold their neutrality laws

iv. 1837 – The Caroline, an American steamer, was carrying supplies to the Canadians on the Niagara River. It was attacked and set fire by the British, killing one American. However, American newspapers illustrated the ship on fire and falling over the Niagara Falls, inflaming American passions

v. 1840 – A Canadian named McLeod boasted of his part in the destroying of the Caroline. He was arrested and indicted for murder. Britain warned that his execution would bring war. However, war was avoided when he provided an airtight alibi

d. Creole

i. 1841 – British officials in the Bahamas offered asylum to 130 Virginia slaves who had rebelled and captured this American ship. The slaves were never returned

ii. Britain abolished slavery in 1834, so this raised southern fears that British Caribbean possessions would become safe-havens for escaped slaves just like Canada

iii. While some people argued that slaves were property that had to be given up, others claimed that the slaves violated no federal law, just individual State laws. So, slavery didn’t exist in the federal government

iv. The British would sometimes stop American ships to suppress American slave smuggling

IV. Manipulating the Maine Maps

a. Building a Road Through Disputed Territory

i. The British wanted to build a road as a defensive precaution against New England that ran through disputed northern territory

ii. Early 1840s - Aroostook War –

1. War between lumberjacks from Maine and Canada near the Aroostook River

b. Webster-Ashburton Treaty of 1842

i. Americans retained 7,000 miles of the 12,000 miles in dispute near Maine

ii. Also settled border disputes in the Great Lakes region (the area given up was later found to contain iron deposits near Minnesota)

V. The Lone Star of Texas Shines Alone

a. Problems Between Mexico and Texas

i. Mexico, refusing to recognize Texas’ independence since 1836, regarded the Lone Star Republic as a province in revolt, to be reconquered in the future

ii. Mexican officials loudly threatened war if the American eagle should ever gather the fledgling republic under its protective wings

iii. The Texans were forced to maintain a costly military establishment

iv. Vastly outnumbered by their Mexican foe, they could not tell when they would strike again

1. As a result, Texas was driven to open negotiations with other countries. In 1839-40, the Texans concluded treaties with France, Holland, and Belgium

b. The British Want an Independent Texas

i. A republic would check the southward surge of the Americans, who posed a threat to nearby British possessions in the New World. A puppet Texas, dancing to strings pulled by Britain, could be turned upon the Yankees. In addition, it would challenge the insolent Monroe Doctrine by allowing foreign countries in the Americas and fragment the United States. The French had similar purposes in mind

ii. British abolitionists hoped that by freeing the few blacks in Texas, they presumably would inflame the nearby slaves of the South

iii. British merchants regarded Texas as a potentially important free-trade area and an offset to the tariff-walled United States

iv. British manufacturers believed that the Texas plains constituted one of the great cotton-producing areas of the future. An independent Texas would relieve British looms of their chronic dependence on America – a supply that might be cut off in time of crisis by embargo or war

VI. The Belated Texas Nuptials

a. The American Controversy Over Texas

i. Partly because of the fears aroused by British schemers, Texas became a leading issue in the presidential campaign of 1844

ii. Tyler believed that northerners wouldn’t want Texas to become a State for fear that they would be a slave State. He decided not to annex Texas through a treaty, which needed 2/3 vote, but through a joint resolution, which needed a majority vote

iii. 1845 – Texas became the 28^th State

b. The Mexican Controversy Over Texas

i. Mexico argued that the Americans had taken Texas from them. However, this was not true anymore. It was clear to most that Mexicans would never be able to have this province back

ii. Americans feared that Texas could have alliances with other foreign powers, so many wanted it annexed

VII. Oregon Fever Populates Oregon

a. About the Oregon Country

i. Enormous wilderness

ii. Most parts of this area were claimed at one time or another by four nations:

1. Spain

2. Russia

3. Britain

4. United States

iii. Spain dealt its rights away to the U.S. in the Florida Treaty of 1819

iv. Russia dealt its rights away with a treaty in 1824

b. British Claims to Oregon

i. Based on prior discovery and exploration, treaty rights, and actual occupation

ii. The most important colonizing agency was Hudson’s Bay Company, which was trading profitably with the Indians of the Pacific Northwest for furs

c. American Claims to Oregon

i. Based on prior discovery and exploration, treaty rights, and actual occupation

ii. Captain Robert Gray in 1792 had stumbled upon the Columbia River. The Lewis and Clark expedition also explored the area from 1804-06

iii. Missionaries settled in the area to convert the Indians

d. Treaty of 1818

i. Americans and British lived peacefully in the area

ii. In the Treaty of 1818, the United States divided/shared the area with the British

e. Influx of Americans in the Early 1840s

i. In the early 1840s, hundreds of pioneers covered the 2,000 mile Oregon Trail in about 5 months

ii. By 1846, 5,000 of them had settled south of the Columbia River. The British could only manage 700 or so people in the area

iii. They were beginning to see the wisdom of arriving at a peaceful settlement before being engulfed by their neighbors

f. Area of Oregon In Dispute

i. The area in dispute consisted of the northwest corner of present-day Oregon

ii. Britain offered the line of the Columbia River, while America offered the 49^th parallel

iii. This now became in issue in the 1844 election

VIII. A Mandate for Manifest Destiny

a. Nominations For the Presidency

i. Whigs – Henry Clay (Some Whigs feared American expansion because they were concerned about slavery in the new territories, while other supported it by peaceful means)

ii. Democrats – James K. Polk (Van Buren was against annexing Texas, so this ensured his defeat)

b. James K. Polk

i. Was Speaker of the House for 4 years

ii. Governor of Tennessee for two terms

iii. Favored by Andrew Jackson

c. Manifest Destiny and the Election

i. In the 1840s and 1850s, many citizens felt a mission that God had “manifestly” destined the American people to have all of the continent and possibly South America as well. John O’Sullivan, an American journalist, wrote an article pushing for the annexation of Texas and coined the phrase “Manifest Destiny”

ii. This came out of post-1812 War nationalism, reform impulse of the 1830s, and the need for new resources

iii. Most Democrats favored expansion and incorporated it in their campaign (with Texas and Oregon)

iv. Clay wrote a series of confusing letters over the crucial issue of Texas. They seemed to say that while he personally favored annexing slaveholding Texas (an appeal to the South), he also favored postponement (an appeal to the North)

d. Election of 1844

i. Polk won – 170-105; 1,340,000-1,300,000

ii. Clay would have won if he had not lost New York State by 5,000 votes. In that States, the antislavery Liberty Party absorbed 16,000 votes, many of which probably would’ve gone to Clay

iii. Ironically, the Liberty Party, by spoiling Clay’s chances of winning, helped to ensure the election of pro-Texas Polk. The Liberty Party was against annexation of Texas

iv. The Democrats claimed that they had received a mandate from the voters to take Texas, so Tyler signed the joint resolution just before he left office

IX. Polk the Purposeful

a. James K. Polk

i. 5’8”

ii. Lean

iii. Hard-working, but not brilliant

iv. He didn’t want to delegate authority and took everything seriously, which drove him to his death

v. Achieved a 4-point program with remarkable success

b. Polk’s Objectives

i. Lowered Tariff (Walker Tariff of 1846) –

1. Devised a tariff bill that reduced the average rates of from 32% to 25%

2. New Englanders and the middle States claimed that American manufacturing would be ruined, but it didn’t happen

3. It proved to be successful because it was followed by heavy imports and a good economic period

ii. Restoration of the Independent Treasury –

1. Established in 1846

iii. Acquisition of CA

iv. Settlement of OR Dispute –

1. Proposed the line of 49 degrees, not the 54 degrees 40 minutes line proposed by his party

2. British now concluded that the Columbia River wasn’t that important and Americans one day might seize Oregon from them

3. 1846 – British said that the 49 degrees line would be alright

4. The treaty was accepted by the Senate

5. The fact that the U.S. was in a war with Mexico deeply influenced their vote

c. Reaction to the Oregon Settlement

i. The northwest States wanted the 5440 line. Saw as a betrayal by the South. Why all of Texas but not all of Oregon? One Senator joked “Great Britain is powerful and Mexico is weak”

ii. It was a good compromise in that there was no bloodshed

X. Misunderstandings With Mexico

a. California

i. Many Americans wanted its verdant (green) valleys and San Francisco Bay (future gateway to the Pacific Ocean)

ii. Population was mixed

1. 1,300 – Mexicans

2. 75,000 – Indians

3. 1,000 – Americans

iii. Unfounded rumors were spreading that Britain was about to buy CA

iv. An envoy (John Slidell) who was sent to Mexico was instructed to offer a maximum of $25 million to buy CA and territory to the east

v. The proud Mexican people thought that the proposition was insulting and rejected Slidell

b. Unpaid Debts

i. The U.S. had claims against the Mexicans for $3 million in damages to American citizens and their property. The Mexicans agreed to pay the debt, but were forced to default on them because they were in a revolution

c. Argument Over Texas

i. The Mexican government, after threatening war if the United States should acquire Texas, had recalled its minister from Washington following annexation

ii. There was also a question of boundaries – Americans claimed to the Rio Grande, but the previous boundary had been the Nueces River

iii. Mexican still believed that Texas was theirs and Polk avoided conflict by keeping troops out of the no-man’s land between the two rivers

XI. American Blood on American Soil?

a. War With Mexico

i. January 13, 1846 – Polk ordered 4,000 men under General Zachary Taylor to march from the Nueces River to the Rio Grande. He expected a clash

ii. When no clash happened, he informed his cabinet that he intended to ask Congress to declare war on the basis of:

1. Unpaid claims

2. The CA rejection

iii. Before this happened, Mexican troops crossed the Rio Grande and attacked Taylor

iv. Polk then sent a message to Congress that despite “all our efforts” to avoid a clash, hostilities had been forced upon the country through the shedding of American blood on American soil

v. Congress overwhelmingly voted for war

b. Reaction to the War

i. Polk felt justified in bending the truth if that’s what it took to get what he wanted. Since Mexico refused to sell CA at any cost, Polk felt that war was the quickest solution

ii. Congressman Abraham Lincoln introduced resolutions that requested information as to the precise “spot” on American soil where American blood had been shed. He pushed his “spot” resolutions with such persistence that he came to be known as the “spotty Lincoln” who could die of “spotted fever”

iii. Extreme antislavery people in the North (many Whigs) called the president a liar

c. Mexican Aggressor?

i. Wanted to:

1. Humiliate the bullies to the North

2. Invade the U.S.

3. Free the black slaves

ii. Hoped that Britain would fight America over Oregon

iii. Thought that conquest of Mexico would go like the American invasion of Canada in 1812

XII. The Mastering of Mexico

a. Santa Anna

i. Exiled dictator Santa Anna was in Cuba. He let it be known that if the American blockade would let him back into Mexico, he would sell out his country

ii. Polk agreed to this, but once Santa Anna returned to Mexico, he proceeded to rally his countrymen to defend their soil

b. General Stephen Kearny and Captain John Fremont

i. Kearny led troops over the Santa Fe Trail, capturing the area

ii. Fremont won attacks by land and sea in CA in 1846. He created the California Republic

c. General Zachary Taylor

i. He went into Mexico and reached Buena Vista by 1847. There, his 5,000 men fought Santa Anna’s 20,000 man army and won

ii. News of this victory soon spread

d. General Winfield Scott and the Conquest of Mexico City

i. Army pushed inland from the coastal city of Vera Cruz in early 1847 under Scott

ii. Scott was a hero from the War of 1812

iii. He was handicapped in the Mexican campaign by:

1. An inadequate number of troops

2. Expiring enlistments

3. A more numerous enemy

4. Mountainous terrain

5. By disease

iv. He reached and captured Mexico City by September 1847

v. Scott was one of the most distinguished generals ever

XIII. Fighting Mexico for Peace

a. America Wants Peace

i. Polk sent the chief clerk of the State Department, Nicholas Trist, who was to arrange for an armistice with Santa Anna at a cost of $10,000. The dictator pocketed the bribe and then used the time to bolster his defenses

ii. Polk recalled Trist, but he stayed and negotiated the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

b. Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

i. Mexico conceded Texas

ii. Yielded the area extending westward to Oregon

iii. The U.S. paid $15 million for the land and assumed the claims of U.S. citizens against Mexico in the amount of $3.25 million

iv. With mounting opposition to the war in the House (they were beginning to refuse to allocate money for supplies), the treaty had to be passed quickly

c. All of Mexico For America?

i. More and more people were wanting all of Mexico

ii. If the nation would have seized it, America would’ve been burdened with an expensive and complicated political problem

iii. The treaty was approved by the Senate 38-14

d. Immediate Aftermath of the War

i. Victors don’t usually pay $18.25 after winning a war. Why did Polk do it?

1. Some have charged that the Americans had a guilty conscience

2. Others thought that it was due to fair play

3. Could’ve been paid as a bribe to get the treaty done quickly, before mounting opposition in Congress could block Polk’s expansion policies

XIV. Profit and Loss in Mexico

a. Results of the War

i. Loses –

1. 13,000 Americans (most from disease)

ii. Increased Land –

1. Area was increased by 1/3

iii. Increased Experience –

1. Mexican campaigns provided field experience for Civil War generals, including Lee and Grant

2. West Point (1802) justified its existence by the Mexican War success

3. Naval Academy (1846) justified its existence through the success of the crippling blockade around Mexican ports (it was founded by historian and Navy Secretary George Bancroft)

4. Marine Corps won prestige as well (still sing about Halls of Montezuma)

iv. Foreign Countries Increase Respect –

1. The army waged war without defeat and without a major blunder, despite the long marches

2. British and foreign skeptics changed their opinion on American military strength

v. Downturn In Latin American Relations –

1. Mexicans have never forgotten that their northern enemy tore away about half of their country

2. Ever since this war, America has been regarded with suspicion, as greedy, a bully, and untrustworthy

vi. Roused the Slavery Issue –

1. Abolitionists believed that the war was provoked by the South to expand slavery. Most American volunteers were from the South and Southwest (but proximity rather than conspiracy was the real explanation)

b. Wilmot Proviso

i. Representative from PA who introduced a bill that would make slavery nonexistent in any of the territory gained from Mexico

ii. It never became law, but all except one of the free States adopted it

iii. The Mexican War represented the looming question of slavery’s future, which would be decided in the Civil War