America Secedes from the Empire

I. Congress Drafts George Washington

a. 2^nd Continental Congress

i. In Philadelphia, on May 10, 1775, all 13 colonies met at the 2^nd Continental Congress. It served as our first government and met for 5 years until the Articles of Confederation took place

ii. There was still no well-defined sentiment for independence – merely a desire to continue fighting in the hope that the king and Parliament would consent to a redress of grievances

iii. At the 2^nd Continental Congress, they

1. Raised an army and navy

2. Bought supplies

3. Made treaties

4. Drafted the Olive Branch Petition (July 1775)

5. Drafted the Articles of Confederation

6. Drafted the Declaration of Independence

7. Selected George Washington to head the army

b. George Washington

i. This choice was made with considerable misgivings:

1. He had never risen above the rank of a colonel in the militia

2. His largest command had numbered only 1,200 men

3. Lost more battles than he won

ii. However, the Virginian was gifted:

1. Outstanding powers of leadership and immense strength of character

2. Radiated patience, courage, self-discipline, and a sense of justice

3. He was a great moral force rather than a military mind – a symbol and rallying point

4. People trusted him and he insisted on serving without pay

iii. His selection was political:

1. Americans in other sections of the country, already jealous, were beginning to distrust the large New England army being collected around Boston

2. It was natural to pick a commander from VA, the largest and most populous of the colonies

3. As a man of wealth, Washington could not be accused of being a fortune-seeker

4. As an aristocrat, he could be counted on by his peers to check “the excesses of the masses”

II. Bunker Hill (1775) and Hessian Hirelings

a. No Independence Yet

i. Although the Americans were fighting the British, many were affirming their loyalty to the king and hoping to patch things up

ii. The war was fought for 14 months, from April 1775 – July 1776, before the fateful plunge into independence was taken

b. Battle of Bunker Hill

i. The British had captured Boston

ii. In June 1775, a tiny American force under Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold seized a hill, now known as Bunker Hill (actually Breed’s Hill), from the British

iii. Sharpshooting Americans number 1,500 turned back two frontal assaults from 3,000 British soldiers

iv. They held the British off until they ran out of ammunition and was overrun

v. America’s strong defense led to strengthened morale and many British dead

c. Colonies In Rebellion

i. After Bunker Hill, the Continental Congress adopted the Olive Branch Petition, professing American loyalty to the crown and begging the king to prevent further hostilities

ii. However, following Bunker Hill, King George III would not hear any more pleas for reconciliation

iii. In August 1775, he formally proclaimed the colonies in rebellion

1. Now the skirmishes were treason, a crime by hanging

d. Hessians Hired By King George III

i. Six German princes who needed the money for debts, supplied Germans to fight in the war

ii. Because most of these soldiers-for-hire came from the German principality of Hesse, the Americans called all of them Hessians

III. The Abortive Conquest of Canada (1775)

a. Why Take Canada?

i. Americans believed that the French were ready to rebel against the British. However, the French were treated well in the Quebec Act

ii. A successful attack would add a 14^th colony. However, this contradicted the claim of the colonists that they were merely fighting defensively for a redress of grievances. This would be offensive warfare

iii. It would deprive Britain of a valuable base for striking at the colonies

b. The Attack Begins

i. October 1775 – Attack on Canada begins

ii. General Richard Montgomery captures Montreal

iii. He was later joined at Quebec by the bedraggled army of General Benedict Arnold, whose men had been reduced to eating dogs and shoe leather during their grueling march through the Maine woods

iv. December 1775 – The assault on Quebec fails. Montgomery dies and Arnold is shot in the leg

c. Fighting in Early 1776

i. January 1776 – British set fire to Norfolk, VA

ii. February 1776 – Colonists won a battle at Moore’s Creek Bridge in NC

iii. March 1776 – British were forced to evacuate Boston (Evacuation Day is still celebrated in Boston)

iv. June 1776 – Colonists won a battle against an invading British fleet at Charleston harbor

IV. Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense (1776)

a. Why Did Americans Continue to Deny Any Intention of Independence?

i. Loyalty to the empire was deeply ingrained

ii. Most Americans continued to consider themselves a part of a transatlantic community in which the mother country of Britain played a leading role

iii. Colonial unity was poor

iv. Open rebellion was dangerous, especially against formidable Britain (you might be hung, drawn, and quartered)

b. Recognizing the Need For Independence

i. Americans were shocked into recognizing the need for independence by British actions:

1. British burning Falmouth, MA, and Norfolk, VA

2. Hiring of the Hessians

c. Common Sense

i. Publication of this pamphlet came in 1776

ii. It was one of the most influential pamphlets ever written

iii. Its author was Thomas Paine, who had come over to America from Britain a year earlier

iv. Within a few months he reached the a total of 120,000 copies

v. Paine flatly branded the indecisiveness of colonists as “common sense”

1. Nowhere in the physical universe did the smaller heavenly body control the larger one. So why should the tiny island of Britain control the vast continent of America?

2. The king was referred to as “the Royal Brute of Great Britain”

3. Rejected monarchy and embraced an independent republic

vi. The publication weakened resistance in the Continental Congress toward independence

V. Paine and the Idea of “Republicanism”

a. Republicanism

i. Paine advocated a republic, where power flowed from the people themselves, not from a corrupt and despotic monarch

ii. He believed that everyone in government should derive their authority from popular consent

iii. Political philosophers had advanced the idea since the days of classical Greece and Rome. The ideas were revived in the Renaissance in 17^th century England

iv. Republicanism particularly appealed to:

1. British politicians critical of excessive power in the hands of the king and his advisers

2. American colonists, who interpreted the vengeful royal acts of the previous decade as part of a monarchical conspiracy to strip them of their liberties as British subjects

b. Republicanism in the Colonies

i. Many settlers had practiced a kind of republicanism in their democratic town meetings and annual elections in New England

ii. The popularly elected committees of correspondence during 1774 and 1775 had also demonstrated the feasibility of republican government

c. Citizen “Virtue”

i. Most Americans considered citizen “virtue” fundamental to any successful republican government

ii. Because political power no longer rested with the central, all-powerful authority of the king, individuals in a republic needed to sacrifice their personal self-interest to the public good – John Locke (Social Contract Theory)

iii. The good of “the people” mattered more than the private rights and interests of individuals

d. Other Approaches to Republicanism

i. Some favored a republic ruled by a “natural aristocracy” of talent. There would be no hereditary aristocracy, but a social hierarchy

ii. These people feared the lower class and that they would embrace a kind of runaway republicanism that amounted to a radical leveling of all society

VI. Jefferson’s Explanation of Independence

a. Richard Henry Lee

i. June 7, 1776 – Lee (from VA) motioned for the independence of the colonies

ii. Shortly after Lee made his motion, Congress appointed a committee to prepare a more formal statement of separation. In the committee were:

1. Thomas Jefferson – a young VA lawyer who was the brilliant writer of the Declaration of Independence

2. Benjamin Franklin

3. John Adams

4. Robert Livingston

5. Roger Sherman

iii. Two other committees were formed:

1. Draft the Articles of Confederation

2. Enlist the help of the French and other foreign countries

iv. July 2, 1776 – Lee’s Resolutions were adopted

v. John Adams believed that ever thereafter, July 2^nd would be celebrated annually with fireworks

b. Declaration of Independence

i. Gave his appeal universality by invoking the “natural rights” of humankind – not just British rights. He argued that because the king had flouted these rights, the colonists were justified in cutting their connection

ii. Set forth a long list of the tyrannous misdeeds of George III

1. Imposing taxes without consent

2. Dispensing with trial by jury

3. Abolishing valued laws

4. Establishing a military dictatorship

5. Maintaining standing armies in peacetime

6. Cutting off trade

7. Burning towns

8. Hiring mercenaries

9. Inciting hostility among the Indians

iii. Lacked provisions condemning the slave trade that earlier drafts had contained

c. Immediate and Long-Term Impact of the Declaration of Independence

i. Served as an appeal to enlist more colonists to the American cause and rally resistance

ii. Served as an invitation for assistance from foreign nations

iii. Affirmation that “all men are created equal” would haunt him and his fellow citizens for generations (slavery & women)

iv. The Declaration was a source of inspiration to countless revolutionary movements against arbitrary authority (i.e. – The French Revolution would take place 13 years later)

VII. Patriots and Loyalists

a. Parties in the War

i. Loyalists – Colonists loyal to the king

1. Redcoats – Professional British army

2. Tories – After the dominant political party in Britain

ii. Patriots – American rebels

1. Whigs – After the opposition party in Britain

b. Contending for Supporters

i. Both sides not only contended with each other, but they also contended for the support of the colonists

ii. Many colonists were apathetic or neutral. The American Revolution was a minority movement

iii. The rebel army was a remarkably effective agent of Revolutionary ideas. They convinced many colonists, even those indifferent to independence, that the British army was an unreliable friend and that they had better throw in their lot with the Patriot cause. They also mercilessly harassed Loyalists

c. Loyalists

i. Families often split over the issue of independence

1. Benjamin Franklin supported the Patriot side, whereas his illegitimate son, William Franklin (the last royal governor of New Jersey), upheld the Loyalist cause

ii. The British in the New World were taught to be loyal to the crown

iii. Many people who were well off and were satisfied with their lot believed that any violent change would only be for the worse

iv. Loyalists were also more numerous among the older generation. Patrick Henry (Give me liberty or give me death), Samuel Adams, Thomas Jefferson, Richard Henry Lee were all young

v. Loyalists also included the king’s officers, Anglican clergy, and a large portion of their congregations – all of whom had long been taught submission to the king

vi. Loyalists were least numerous in New England, where self-government was especially strong and mercantilism was especially weak. The king’s followers were strong in aristocratic New York City and Charleston, and also in Quaker Pennsylvania and New Jersey (where General Washington felt that he was fighting in “the enemy’s country”)

VIII. The Loyalist Exodus

a. Harsh Treatment of Loyalists

i. After the Declaration of Independence, which officially separated Loyalists from Patriots, harsh harassment occurred to the Loyalists. They regarded them as traitors

1. Tarring and feathering

2. Riding astride fence rails

3. Imprisoned

4. Hanged

ii. There was no reign of terror like that of France or Russia’s revolutions

1. The colonists reflected Anglo-Saxon regard for order

2. The leading Loyalists were prudent enough to flee to the British lines

b. Loyalists Flee

i. 80,000 Loyalists were driven out, but several hundred thousand of the mild Loyalists stayed

ii. The estates of many of the fugitives were confiscated and sold to help finance the war

c. Loyalist Volunteers

i. 50,000 Loyalists were volunteers

1. Served as spies

2. Incited the Indians so that Patriot soldiers would stay at home to protect their families

ii. The British didn’t make full use of them in fighting

IX. General Washington at Bay (1776)

a. New York and the Battle of Long Island

i. Once Boston was evacuated in March 1776, the British choose friendly New York as a base of operations

ii. Washington’s 1,800 troops met 3,500 British troops and were routed at the Battle of Long Island

iii. Washington escaped to Manhattan Island and retreated west, crossing the Hudson River to New Jersey and finally reaching the Delaware River

iv. The British General William Howe did not speedily crush the demoralized American forces. He was the commander responsible for the horrible slaughter at Bunker Hill. He may not have attacked because:

1. The country was rough

2. Supplies were slow in coming

3. He didn’t want to fight during the cold winter months

b. New Jersey Campaign

i. On December 26, 1776, Washington recrossed the Delaware River to Trenton, NJ

ii. He surprised and captured 1,000 Hessians who were sleeping off the effects of their Christmas celebration

iii. A week later, he inflicted a defeat on a small British detachment at Princeton

iv. These were two great victories

X. Burgoyne’s Blundering Invasion

a. British Attempt to Capture the Hudson River

i. If successful, the British would sever New England from the rest of the States and paralyze the American cause

ii. The main invading force was led by British General Johnny Burgoyne

iii. Here was the British plan:

1. Burgoyne would push down the Lake Champlain route from Canada

2. General Howe’s troops could move up to meet him at Albany if needed

3. A smaller force led by Colonel Barry St. Leger would come in from the west by way of Lake Ontario and the Mohawk Valley

b. General Burgoyne’s Invasion Attempt #1 (1776)

i. After his repulse at Quebec in 1775, General Benedict Arnold retreated to the Lake Chaplain area. This was a critical lake for the transport of supplies to Canada, so the British couldn’t move farther south until it was taken

ii. While the British stopped to construct a sizable fleet, the tireless Arnold assembled and fitted out every floatable vessel. His tiny flotilla was finally destroyed after desperate fighting, but the extra time this took caused the British to stop their pursuit because winter was coming

iii. The British were forced to retire to Canada and General Burgoyne had to start anew the following year

iv. General Burgoyne was held up by:

1. The wives of his officers

2. They needed to cut a path through the forest; there was no road

v. If Arnold had not contributed his daring and skill, the British invaders of 1776 almost certainly would have recaptured Fort Ticonderoga and the Hudson River the next year

c. General Howe’s Plans For Philadelphia

i. Meanwhile, instead of going to Albany, Howe embarked with the main British army for an attack on Philadelphia, the rebel capital

ii. He wanted to force an engagement with Washington’s army, destroy it, and leave the path wide open for Burgoyne

iii. He wrongly assumed that he would have time to still assist Burgoyne if needed

d. Battle of Philadelphia (1777)

i. Washington transferred his army to the vicinity of Philadelphia in 1777

ii. He was defeated in two battles, at Brandywine Creek and Germantown

iii. Pleasure-loving General Howe then settled down comfortably in the lively capital, leaving Burgoyne by himself (Franklin – He didn’t capture Philly, Philly captured him)

iv. Washington retired to winter quarters at Valley Forge, a strong, hilly position some 20 miles NW of Philadelphia. There his frostbitten and hungry men were short of about everything except misery

e. General Burgoyne’s Invasion Attempt #2 (1777)

i. Burgoyne had begun to bog down north of Albany, while American militiamen swarmed about him

ii. Americans drove back St. Leger’s force at Oriskany

iii. Unable to advance or retreat, Burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire command at Saratoga on October 1777 to the American general Horatio Gates (Arnold had gone to Quebec again)

f. Results of the Battle of Saratoga (October 1777)

i. It was the turning point of the war

ii. It revived the faltering colonial cause

iii. Demonstrated that the British could more easily hold the cities, but that they would have trouble subduing the countrysides

iv. It made possible the urgently needed foreign aid from France, which began after this battle

XI. America is Allied With France

a. Why France?

i. France was eager for revenge against Britain for the Seven Years’ War

ii. They believed that if Britain were stripped of their North American colonies, Britain would cease to be a major power

iii. America badly needed help in the struggle to defeat the British

b. Why Not France?

i. The rebellious Americans also harbored revolutionary ideas about international affairs. John Adams, as well as others, wanted:

1. No political connections

2. No military connections

3. Only commercial connections with foreign countries

ii. They also wanted:

1. Free trade

2. Freedom of the seas

3. End to colonialism

4. End to mercantilism

iii. This all represented the emerging school of thought from the Enlightenment. They believed that history had reached a momentous turning point when military conflict would be abandoned and the bonds of mutual commercial interest would guarantee peaceful relations. Critics believed this was a hopelessly naïve and impractically utopian dream

c. Benjamin Franklin in France

i. Benjamin Franklin was sent to France in 1776 to negotiate the alliance with the French and the eventual treaty of peace

ii. He was determined that his very appearance should achieve the diplomatic revolution the Americans hoped to achieve

1. Instead of the customary ceremonial sword, he used a plain, white walking stick

2. Instead of fancy robes and wigs, he sported homespun garments and a simple fur cap

3. Parisians adored hum as a specimen of a new democratic order

d. The British Offer Home Rule (1777)

i. After the British defeat at Saratoga in 1777, Parliament passed a measure that offered the Americans home rule within the empire

ii. Franklin played skillfully on French fears of Anglo-American reconciliation

iii. On February 6, 1778, France signed a treaty of alliance with the Americans:

1. Both sides would wage war until the United States had fully secured its freedom AND

2. Both agreed to terms with the common enemy

e. Immediate Results of the Treaty (1778)

i. The treaty constituted an official recognition of America’s independence

ii. It lent powerful military might to the Patriot cause

iii. The Revolutionary War became a world war

XII. The Colonial War Becomes a World War

a. Countries Entering the War

i. 1778 – France enters the war

ii. 1779 – Spain and Holland enter the war

b. France’s Help

i. After receiving secret French aid before 1778, from 1778-1783, France supplied America with:

1. Guns

2. Money

3. Equipment

4. ½ of America’s armed forces

5. All of the new nation’s naval strength

ii. The British had been able to count on blockading the colonial coast and commanding the seas. Now the French had powerful fleets in American waters, chiefly to protect their own valuable West Indies islands, but in a position to jeopardize Britain’s blockade and lines of supply

iii. The British, therefore, decided to evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate their strength in New York City

c. Monmouth, New Jersey (June 1778)

i. In June 1778, the withdrawing redcoats were attacked by General Washington at Monmouth, New Jersey on a blistering hot day

ii. Many men collapsed or died from sunstroke

iii. Results:

1. The battle was indecisive

2. The British escaped to New York, but 1/3 of their Hessians deserted

3. Except for Yorktown, Washington remained in the New York area fighting the British

XIII. Blow and Counterblow

a. Arrival of French Troops

i. In the summer of 1780, a powerful French army of 6,000 regular troops commanded by Rochambeau arrived in Newport, RI

ii. The Americans were somewhat suspicious of their former enemies. Several flare-ups, involving minor bloodshed, occurred between the new allies

iii. No real military advantage came immediately from this French reinforcement, although preparations were made for a Franco-American attack on NY

b. General Benedict Arnold

i. Later in 1780, improving American morale was staggered when General Benedict Arnold turned traitor

ii. He believed that his valuable services were not fully appreciated, so he plotted with the British to sell out the key stronghold of West Point, a fort along the Hudson River, for 6,300 pounds and an officer’s commission

c. War in the Carolinas

i. The British devised a plan to roll up the colonies, beginning with the South, where the Loyalists were numerous

1. 1778-1779 – Georgia fell

2. 1780 – Charleston, SC fell (led by Cornwallis)

ii. The tide turned in South Carolina in late 1780 and early 1781, when American riflemen wiped out a British detachment at King’s Mountain and then defeated a smaller force at Cowpens

d. General Nathaniel Greene

i. Raised a Quaker

ii. In the Carolina campaign, he distinguished himself by his strategy of delay. He would stand, then retreat, exhausting his foe

iii. This strategy worked, as he eventually succeeded in clearing most of Georgia and South Carolina of British troops

XIV. The Land Frontier and the Sea Frontier

a. Native Americans in the War

i. Indian allies of Britain hoped to protect their land. Many believed that a British victory would restrain American expansion into the West

1. They were egged on by British agents branded as “hair buyers” because they allegedly paid bounties for American scalps

ii. 1777 – Bloody year on the frontier

1. Joined the Americans –

a. Oneidas

b. Tuscaroras

2. Joined the British –

a. Senecas

b. Mohawks

c. Cayugas

d. Onondagas

b. People Still Moving West During the War

i. People still moved west during the war

1. Lexington, Kentucky – named after the battle

2. Louisville, Kentucky – named after America’s new ally, Louis XVI

c. George Rogers Clark

i. The British only held scattered posts that they had captured from the French in Illinois

ii. Clark and 175 men decided to float down the Ohio River and capture forts Kaskaskia, Cahokia, and Vincennes

iii. Some argue that his exploits forced the British to cede the region north of the Ohio River to the United States at the peace table in Paris

d. America’s Navy

i. The navy consisted of only a handful of nondescript ships, commanded by daring officers, including John Paul Jones

1. His raids on the British debilitated their ability to receive supplies

2. Stated, “Surrender? I have not yet begun to fight.”

ii. This tiny naval force never made a real dent in Britain’s fleets

iii. It’s main contribution was in destroying British merchant shipping

e. Privateers

i. These were more numerous and damaging than the American navy. 1,000 ships with 70,000 men

ii. These craft were privately owned armed ships – legalized pirates – specifically authorized by Congress to prey on enemy shipping

iii. They captured about 600 British ships, while British warships captured about as many American merchantmen and privateers

XV. Yorktown and the End of the War

a. Dark Days – 1780-1781

i. Inflation of currency continued at a fast pace

ii. The government was nearly bankrupt

iii. They declared that it would repay many of its debts at the rate of only 2.5 cents on the dollar

iv. The sense of unity was withering

v. Mutinous sentiments infected the army

b. General Cornwallis in Yorktown

i. General Charles Cornwallis was a member of Parliament and military leader (he even opposed the tax measures that led to the American Revolution)

ii. After futile operations in VA, he fell back to the Chesapeake Bay at Yorktown to await seaborne supplies and reinforcements

iii. He assumed Britain would continue to control the sea, but for a few weeks, British naval superiority slipped

c. Battle of Yorktown (1781)

i. French Admiral de Grasse, operating with a powerful fleet in the West Indies, advised the Americans that he was free to join with them in an assault on Cornwallis at Yorktown

ii. General Washington made a swift march of more than 300 miles to the Chesapeake from the New York area

iii. Accompanied by Rochambeau’s French army, Washington surrounded the British by land, while de Grasse blockaded them by sea after beating off the British fleet

iv. Cornwallis surrendered his entire force of 7,000 men on October 19, 1781

d. The End?

i. Although some British thought the war was over, including Prime Minister Lord North, George III planned to continue the struggle

ii. Britain still had 54,000 troops in North America, including 32,000 in the United States

iii. Washington returned with his army to New York to keep an eye on the 10,000 British who were stationed there

iv. Fighting continued for more than a year after Yorktown

XVI. Peace at Paris

a. British Faltering

i. After Yorktown, many Britons were weary of war and ready to end it

ii. They had suffered heavy setbacks in India and in the West Indies

iii. The Rock of Gibraltar was close to falling

iv. Lord North’s ministry collapsed in March 1782, and a Whig ministry that was favorable to the Americans replaced it

b. Peace Negotiations

i. Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and John Jay were the American peace negotiators

ii. The three had explicit instructions from Congress to make no separate peace and to consult with their French allies at all stages of the negotiations. However, all three knew that the order was written by Congress under pressure from France

iii. France was in a bad position because it had induced Spain into the war on its side

1. In part by promising to deliver British-held Gibraltar. However, the rock was withstanding combined assaults from the French and Spanish

2. Spain also coveted the immense trans-Allegheny area, on which American pioneers were already settling

iv. France wanted to keep the United States east of the Allegheny Mountains

1. They hoped that America would be weaker this way, so that France could promoted their interests and policies

c. Separate Peace With Britain

i. John Jay thought that France couldn’t satisfy the conflicting ambitions of both Americans and Spaniards

ii. He thought he saw signs indicating that France was about to betray America’s trans-Appalachian interests to satisfy Spain

iii. He therefore secretly made a preliminary peace with Britain in 1782

d. Treaty of Paris of 1783

i. British Concessions

1. Formally recognized the independence of the United States

2. They granted land to the Mississippi River to the west, to the Great Lakes to the north, and to Spanish Florida to the south

3. Americans were to retain a share in the priceless fisheries of Newfoundland

ii. American Concessions

1. Loyalists were not to be further persecuted

2. Congress was to recommend to the State legislatures that confiscated Loyalist property was to be restored

3. The States vowed to put no lawful obstacles in the collection of debts long owed to British creditors

iii. The assurances regarding both Loyalists and debts were not carried out in the manner hoped for by London

XVII. A New Nation Legitimized

a. Why Were the British So Forgiving?

i. Britain was trying to seduce America from its French alliance

ii. The shaky Whig ministry, hanging on by its fingernails for only a few months, was more friendly to the Americans than were the Tories. They were determined to salve recent wounds, reopen old trade channels, and prevent future wars over the coveted trans-Appalachian region

b. Separate Peace?

i. The French formally approved the terms of peace, though they were disturbed by the lone-wolf course of its American ally

ii. France was relieved by the end of the war:

1. It was costly

2. Freed themselves from its embarrassing promises to Spain

c. Summary of Aftermath

i. America – Only country that gained from the war

ii. British – Battered, beaten, and spent a lot of money

iii. France – Savored sweet revenge, but plunged down the slope to bankruptcy and revolution